Interminority Racism

A brief description of the global city and the increasing diversity represented in these cities is followed by an example of interminority conflict. This is then followed by a discussion and definition of the concept of race and racism in the United States and how it has historically been studied. Theories of interminority racism are then discussed. The ways in which interminority conflict has been addressed and is understood are dealt with. This discussion includes how rapid demographic shifts have led to contests for political representation and how they have often led to violent conflict between minority groups. The idea of the model minority and resentment among different minority groups and how it has led to conflicts is discussed. Finally, this article deals with differing views of interminority conflict including the ideas of multiculturalism, hierarchy, and positionality.

Keywords Demographic Shift; Ethnicity; Gerrymandering; Hierarchy; Minority; Model Minority; Multiculturalism; Positionality; Race; Racism; Redistricting; Reify; White Flight

Interminority Racism

Overview

As the world has become increasingly globalized through increased trade and migration, people from varied backgrounds are interacting with one another more and more. This is especially true in the emerging global cities where many immigrants from all around the world settle. In these cities many different racial and ethnic groups as well as native and foreign-born residents live alongside each other (Orum & Chen, 2003). As many scholars have noted, this has meant that competition for scarce resources within these cities is becoming more diversified. In the United States especially, this has meant that historically marginalized racial and ethnic groups who occupy the urban landscape are competing amongst themselves, rather than against the historically dominant white majority, for those scarce resources (Davis, 2006; McClain, 2006, Natapoff, 1995).

This competition has manifested itself in various forms. For example, there have been nationwide and localized boycotts of Korean American–owned businesses by the African American community; these boycotts were particularly prevalent in the 1990s. Further, there was an increase in violence between African Americans and Latinos in the first decade of the twenty-first century, particularly in the Los Angeles area. While violence between the two communities has been less prevalent since then, it still exists. The increased instances of conflict between these historically socially subordinate groups has led, in turn, to an increase of investigation into what is variously known as interminority racism or interminority conflict. Because of this, scholars have begun to pay more attention to this phenomenon.

Race & Racism in the United States

Although in the past many scientists attempted to define race as a biological category, it is now understood that race is socially constructed. Macionis (2001) explains: "a race is a socially constructed category composed of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important" (p. 354). So although we may consider a person to be of a particular race because they have certain physical traits, these traits are not inherently a part of some biological schema of race. Instead, racial traits are dependent upon the society in which a person lives. For example, in the United States, for a long time a person was defined as black if they had "one drop" of African ancestry. This is what is known as the "one drop rule." Some states also defined black as having one-eighth African ancestry. Today, in the United States, it is generally accepted that a person's race is defined by the racial community he or she identifies with. This means that racial constructions are fluid and are differently understood by different societies.

In the United States, racial and ethnic conflict has generally been viewed in terms of white racism toward African Americans and other people of color. This is because historically white Anglo society has dominated and marginalized other non-white groups, especially African Americans. Racism is best understood as a relationship between races, and refers to the ways in which one racial group gains social, economic, and/or political advantage in society. Racism can be overt violence against one racial group by another or it can be more subtle, as in the way that job promotions are awarded because a person shares the same race as the boss and is therefore viewed more positively. The term minority refers to social groups "who have unequal access to positions of power, prestige, and wealth in a society" (Knox, Mooney & Schacht, 2002, p. 156). The term does not specifically have to refer to a numerical minority, but instead only to a group that lacks equal access to social resources. Ethnicity, unlike race, is not characterized by phonotypical traits but rather is defined by a group’s shared sense of culture and history. For example, white Americans in the United States are considered to be a race, but within that race there are many different and distinct ethnicities. Someone may consider themselves to be racially white, but ethnically Irish American, for example.

Further Insights

Interminority Conflict Theory

Theories regarding interminority conflict generally view this conflict as a competition for resources. These include theories about in-group/ out-group conflict. This theory claims that groups, in this case racial/ethnic groups, see themselves as competing for scarce resources against other groups. Racial conflict is also seen as a result of proximity. Here, the theory is that groups who perceive themselves as in competition with one another for resources are more likely to perceive the other groups negatively and conflict may occur between them (Morris, 2000, pp. 80–81). Conflict, then, is a result of either real or perceived threats to a group's sense of security. In the case of interminority conflict this can be a result of contests for political power through demographic shifts or perceived power differentials in economic and social status. These conflicts will be more likely to occur, according to this theory, if groups are in closer proximity to one another.

Changing Demographics

The passage of the 1965 immigration bill, which led to a sharp increase of immigrants from Latin America and Asia, has been seen as one of the reasons for rising tensions in US cities between minority groups (Davis 2007; Kim, 2004). Kim (2004) states "the post 1965 demographic revolution generates increasingly complex racial antagonisms among historically subordinated groups…" (p. 997). Davis (2007) likewise, points out that "in 1965 the Voting Rights Act and the Immigration and Nationality Act were passed, creating at the same time a sharp increase in Black voter registration and the largest Korean community in the United States" (p. 219). These conditions of increasing African American political power and rapid demographic shifts, both through increased immigration and white flight from US cities, have created situations in which minority groups have increasingly come into conflict with one another. Indeed, it has been noted that many US cities are either majority-minority or will be soon if trends continue.

These changing demographics have led to changing political and economic power in cities, which at times has also led to violence. Many historically African American neighborhoods have seen dramatic changes because of this. For example, Davis (2007) points out that in the Los Angeles Unified School District (LAUSD) from 1992 to 2006 the percentage of African American students dropped from 14.6% to 11.7%, while at the same time the Latino population increased from 65% to 73.3% (p. 222). Davis quotes a Los Angeles Times article that highlights the increasing conflict between Los Angeles' minority populations:

The acrimonious relationship between Latinos and African Americans in Los Angeles is growing hard to ignore…just last August, federal prosecutors convicted Latino gang members of engaging in a six-year conspiracy to assault and murder African Americans in Highland Park. During the trial, prosecutors demonstrated that African American residents (with no gang ties at all) were being terrorized in an effort to force them out of a neighborhood now perceived as Latino (Maddox, 2007 as cited in Davis, 2007, p. 223).

Political Factors

Beyond the violence that is associated with these shifts there are political factors as well. The political importance of these demographic shifts is discussed by Natapoff (1995). In her discussion of how the Supreme Court has dealt with racial politics she highlights several cases that dealt with racial politics.

Historically fights over racial politics and political districts have been very contentious. In many cases political districts were either drawn or redrawn to limit minority groups' political power. This was done by carving up minority neighborhoods into many different districts so that a minority group could never gain a majority in a district and subsequently elect someone to represent their interests. This practice is known as gerrymandering. In the cases Natapoff discusses she points out that the court has not dealt well with race and ethnicity as constructs. She states that the court has either dealt with race as a black and white issue or has dealt with it in a multiculturalist and pluralist way in which white people are treated as just another racial/ethnic group competing equally among others. This, she argues, leads to decisions that lack a consideration of the dynamics of race in the United States. These decisions fail to acknowledge that in the US, white Americans have historically been the dominant group, which should be considered, but also that different minority groups have their own unique and distinct interests. In one redistricting case, she explains that the court failed to recognize that the scheme for redistricting did not deal well with interminority conflict because it lumped the Puerto Rican community into a district with the African American community of New York. She argues that in this case, the court failed to see that each community has its own interests that while distinct from white interests, are also distinct from one another’s. Thus, because of the way politics functions in the US, minority interests are closely related to demographics. As these demographic shifts continue, scholars argue there is likely to be more interminority conflict (Davis, 2007; Mclain, 2006; Natapoff, 1995).

Economic & Social Power Shifts: The African American & Korean American Communities

It has also been noted that beyond the sheer numbers of demographics there have also been differentials in economic and social power that have created conflicts. Instances in which this has become most acute include fights over Korean American–owned businesses in African American neighborhoods (Davis, 2007; Joyce, 2003; Kim, 2004; McClain, 2006; Morris, 2002).

In the 1980s and 1990s there were a series of boycotts of Korean American–owned businesses led by the African American community. The boycotts were precipitated themselves by various events but often became linked to African American unity and nationalism (Joyce, 2003). Davis (2007) describes one situation in Los Angeles in which a young African American girl was shot by a Korean American shop owner over an argument in which the shop owner accused the girl of trying to steal something from the store. She also points out that beyond this incident, many in the African American community in Los Angeles thought that they were treated unfairly in Korean American–owned businesses. She explains that most of the Korean American shopkeepers who did business in African American neighborhoods did not live in those neighborhoods (p. 221). These facts led to a feeling among African American community leaders and activists that this was robbing the African American community of their own economic livelihood and well-being. Joyce (2003) describes it this way:

… a common thread ran through nearly all the boycotts: protesters made demands that went beyond initial provocations, explicitly linking their actions to the impact of stores on the surrounding community. Boycott leaders almost always claimed that they were defending the economic self-sufficiency of black neighborhoods or the dignity of black residents, twin themes in ideologies of black nationalism (p. 221).

The African American community, then, came to view all of these boycotts together and framed the existence of so many Korean American–owned businesses in African American neighborhoods as an affront to the entire community. In 1992 simmering tensions between the African American and Korean American communities exploded during the Los Angeles riots. During these riots, which were sparked by the acquittal of four Los Angeles Police Department officers who were videotaped beating an African American man, African American and Latino residents burned and looted many Korean-owned businesses. Many commentators saw this as an inevitable outcome of the interminority tension that had been building (Davis, 2007; Joyce, 2003)

Further fueling the fire of conflict between the African American and Korean American communities is the idea of the model minority myth. Model minority refers to the idea that some minorities are more successful or more deserving than others because they posses characteristics that have enabled them to succeed financially or socially and integrate into mainstream society. In the United States Asian Americans are often held up as model minorities because they have gained more financial and educational success on average than other minority groups. Rim (2007) quotes a 1966 US News and World Report article that highlights the idea of the model minority well. It states: "At a time when it is being proposed that hundreds of billions be spent to uplift Negroes and other minorities, the Nation's 300,000 Chinese Americans are moving ahead on their own, with no help from anyone" (as cited in Rim, 2007, p. 40). Although she points out that the model minority is a myth, it is often used to divide minorities into competing camps. It also serves to create resentments between different minority groups because it implies that other minorities just are not working hard enough to get ahead or are even deficient in some way.

A further illustration of interminority animosity can be seen in the way in which different minority groups have gained political access and power. For example, following the civil rights movement African Americans were very organized politically and have been perceived by other minority groups as having gained more access to formal political channels than others. Kim (2004) explains that although African Americans may see themselves at the bottom of a perceived racial hierarchy, other minorities do not necessarily see it the same way. The author states, "There is a sense among some Asian Americans and Latinos that all minorities are comparably oppressed and/or that blacks not only dominate civil rights circles and electoral politics but also act (inappropriately) as gatekeepers in these arenas" (p. 999). Within different minority groups, then, there are differing opinions about levels of oppression and about which group is more or less deserving of social and/or political benefits.

Viewpoints & Discussion

Although there has seemingly been much evidence of interminority conflict, from riots and protests to interethnic killings and beatings, such conflict is not necessarily inevitable. Many scholars have argued that although it does seem like there has been ever-increasing conflict among growing minority populations, there are some studies that conclude that this conflict has not been occurring to the degree that it may seem. Others claim that evidence of it is not that strong. Some argue that the conflict that has been occurring may not be inherently bad. For example, conflict theorists see conflict as an inherent part of any unjust society. Joyce (2003) sees conflict as normal and instead examines the political structures and opportunities that have allowed for certain types of conflict to emerge in some cities while being discouraged in others. In New York, for example, old-style machine politics allowed for nonviolent African American mobilization whereas in Los Angeles, the reform-style government led to more violent outbursts such as the 1992 riot.

Morris (2000) examines interminority conflict as it played out in voting patterns regarding California's Proposition 187, to bar undocumented workers from receiving state services except in cases of emergencies. The rhetoric surrounding the proposition was highly racialized and Morris saw it as an opportunity to examine how different ethnic groups voted on the proposition and, in turn, interminority conflict. The author found no evidence within this context that African Americans, and especially poor African Americans, would be more likely to vote for the proposition. Thus, he argues that theories of interminority conflict are not necessarily accurate in every situation.

Dissecting the Term

Another critique of interminority racism is that the term itself is misleading because it masks power in society. Because racism is usually understood to be a term that refers to the domination of one race over another, it may not be accurate to describe interminority discrimination or prejudice as racism. This is because it is not clear which group would be the group in power in interminority racism. Not only does it hide power relations, but it also tends to reify social difference. The theories of competing group interests do not take into account to a great degree that these differences are constructed and can be reconstructed accordingly. Kim (2004) addresses the idea of interminority conflict and its relation to official multiculturalist discourse. The author argues that instead of dealing with the diverse experiences of minorities in the US and striving to solve social conflict that arises from these vast experiences, official multiculturalist discourse (that is, the discourse of multiculturalism that emanates from the government and other powerful institutions) creates a triumphalist narrative. In this narrative the power differences between racial and ethnic groups are flattened, claiming instead that the United States is a uniquely multiculturalist and pluralist society where diversity creates a stronger nation. Kim argues that instead of this flat multiculturalist discourse, which hides power relations, a counter-narrative of racial positionality should be created. This positionality discourse would position racial and ethnic groups in context to one another. Instead of viewing racial difference as without power differences or in a simple hierarchy, it would position them in relation to their differing experiences. Kim argues that racial positionality:

…will be a less politically divisive concept than that of racial hierarchy. Rather than arguing about which group occupies which rung of a rigid vertical ladder, communities of colour can proclaim the specificity of their respective experiences, acknowledge complex relationality, and focus on how they would all benefit from dismantling the structure of racial difference (2004, p. 1000).

So, rather than minority groups seeing themselves as in competition with one another, instead they would see their mutual benefit from creating new structures entirely.

Conclusion

As scholars have noted and as many have probably noticed, the world in which we live is becoming increasingly interconnected. This interconnectivity has lead to rapid changes in the way people live and where they live. Increasingly our cities are becoming microcosms of the world, where people from many different nationalities, ethnicities, and races live side by side. In many cases these groups have entirely different views, not only about race, but also about politics and conflict. As our cities become more diverse it will be increasingly important to understand, not only historic relations between white Americans and African Americans, but also just as importantly, the multiplicity of different experiences of many different races and ethnicities. A whole new set of racial understandings is necessary to understand racial conflict. Rather than viewing racial conflict as a dichotomous relationship between black and white, interminority conflict can be understood as a part of an emerging diversity. Some scholars have argued that interminority conflict is caused by minority groups that have traditionally lacked equal access to resources competing for scarce resources. Others have argued that racial constructs themselves create these strains. Whatever the case, it is clear that at times the tension that exists between different racial and ethnic groups explodes to the surface in often violent ways. Only by understanding these conflicts can we hope to avoid the violence that often results.

Terms & Concepts

Ethnicity: A group's shared sense of history and culture.

Gerrymandering: Refers to the odd-shaped political districts that were drawn so that minority groups’ political power was diminished by spreading their numbers into several white-dominated districts.

Minority: Refers to a group that lacks full access to social, political, and economic resources of any given society. This does not mean that a group must be a numerical minority.

Model Minority: Label given especially to Asian Americans in the United States. This label implies that they are more hardworking and fit in better to mainstream society than other minorities.

Multiculturalism: A view of society as made up of many different races, ethnicities, and cultures, which all participate peacefully and equally in society.

Race: A social construction based on phonotypical traits that society has deemed important.

Racism: The practice or belief in elevating one race over others either socially, economically, or politically.

Redistricting: When politicians or courts redraw political boundaries for election purposes.

White Flight: Refers to the rapid migration of white Americans out of the inner cities and into the suburbs.

Bibliography

Alexander, B. K. (2012). The performative sustainability of race: Reflections on black culture and the politics of identity. New York: Peter Lang.

Davis, D. M. (2007). The Los Angeles riots revisited: The changing face of the Los Angeles Unified School District and the challenge for educators. Educational Studies. 42 , 213–22. Retrieved June 6, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=27098758&site=ehost-live

Joyce, P. D. (2003). No fire next time: Black-Korean conflicts and the future of America's cities. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Kim, C. J. (2004). Imagining race and nation in multiculturalist America. Ethnic & Racial Studies, 27 , 987–1005. Retrieved May 30, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14573028&site=ehost-live

Jones, J. A. (2012). Blacks may be second class, but they can’t make them leave: Mexican racial formation and immigrant status in Winston-Salem. Latino Studies, 10 , 60–80.

Knox, D., Mooney & L. A. & Schacht, C. (2002). Understanding social problems (8th ed). Stamford, CT: Wadsworth.

Macionis, J. J. (2001). Sociology (8th ed). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Macionis, J. J. (2001). Sociology (8th ed). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Markert, J. (2010). The changing face of racial discrimination: Hispanics as the dominant minority in the USA – a new application of power-threat theory. Critical Sociology, 36 , 307–327.

McClain, P. D. (2006). Presidential Address. Racial intergroup relations in a set of cities: A twenty-year perspective. Journal of Politics, 68 , 757–770. Retrieved June 5, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22577644&site=ehost-live

Morris, I. L. (2000). African American voting on Proposition 187: Rethinking the prevalence of interminority conflict. Political Research Quarterly, 53 , 77–98.

Natapoff, A. (1995). Trouble in paradise: Equal protection and the dilemma of interminority group conflict. Stanford Law Review, 47 , 1059–1096.

Orum, A. M. & Chen, X. (2003). The world of cities: Places in comparative and historical perspective. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.

Rim, K. H. (2007). Model, victim, or problem minority? Examining the socially constructed identities of Asian-origin ethnic groups in California's media. Asian American Policy Review, 16, p37–60. Retrieved June 5, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=27944953&site=ehost-live

Thornton, M. (2011). Meaningful dialogue? The Los Angeles Sentinel’s depiction of black and Asian American relations, 1993–2000. Journal of Black Studies, 42 , 1275–1298.

Suggested Reading

Brueggemann, J. (2012). Inequality in the United States. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Chew, C. M. (2008). Deconstructing the politics of race. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, 25 , 9. Retrieved June 5, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=31863378&site=ehost-live

Kim, D. H., Lee, E. S., Mendieta, E., Perina, M., & Sheth, F. A. (2012). An unruly theory of race. Hypatia, 27 , 898–921. Retrieved November 4, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=82093299&site=ehost-live

McClain P. D. & Stewart Jr, J. (1999). Can we all get along? Racial and ethnic minorities in American politics. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Omi, M. & Winant, H. (1994). Racial formation in the United States form the 1960s to the 1990s. New York: Routledge.

Sheth, F. A. (2009). Toward a political philosophy of race. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.

Wells, A. S. & Frankenberg, E. (2008). The public schools and the challenge of the Supreme Court's integration decision. Education Digest, 73 , 4–13. Retrieved June 5, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=31733328&site=ehost-live