Keller's ARCS Model

In the mid-1970s, Professor John Keller created an instructional design model to increase student motivation. Using four characteristics of learning (attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction), the ARCS model of motivation was created to construct class materials (lesson plans, homework assignments) that keep students motivated to learn. To his peers, Keller is considered a pioneer in the field of motivation design, and the ARCS model has been used successfully worldwide. Specific examples of how ARCS has been used are described here, including comments by Keller on the subject of retention.

Keywords: ARCS Model; Attention; Computer Based Instruction (CBI); Confidence; Instructional Design; Motivation; Relevance; Satisfaction

Overview

Motivation is subjective. Some people are motivated by an incentive to earn money or are inspired by a philanthropic cause. For John Keller, professor of educational psychology & learning systems at Florida State University, motivation is the means by which teachers can create (and restructure) course materials to encourage student success. According to Keller, a student's motivation to learn can be increased when course materials focus on four categories of learning:

• Attention — course materials need to gain and hold students' attention.
• Relevance — instructional content needs to be relevant to students' experiences and what they already know.
• Confidence — as soon as a student becomes successful with new course material, he will gain confidence and continue to perform tasks related to the material (homework, for example).
• Satisfaction — satisfaction with course material will increase when he is rewarded for that success, perhaps by receiving a good grade or a compliment from his teacher.

Motivation has been shown to explain up to one-third of the difference in student achievement (Huett, Moller, Young, Bray & Huett, 2008, p. 113). In other words, students who are more motivated achieve academic success at higher levels than their peers who are less motivated, in about 30% of cases. Keller's ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) offers teachers a formula to create course information (materials, lectures, homework) that will increase student motivation. Keller created the ARCS model based on "a desire to find more effective ways of understanding the major influences on the motivation to learn, and for systematic ways of identifying and solving problems with learning motivation" (Keller, 1987, p. 2). Through many studies, both independent and collaborative, Keller has proven that the ARCS model of instructional design does increase student motivation and thus, student academic success. The model has been used worldwide, and Keller is noted as a primary influence in the field.

The ARCS Instructional Design Model of Motivation

There are many reasons why students aren't motivated in school. From the tone of a teacher's voice to the distance a desk is from a window, student boredom can be the result of just about anything. However, it is most common when course material cannot be applied or when it has little significance to the student. When looking at each category of learning, Keller created more specific areas on which teachers can focus instructional materials. Each area supports learning by helping to create or maintain student motivation. For example, attention is the primary stimulus to learning, and Keller suggests that it be gained by increasing a student's perception (Keller coins this "perceptual arousal") by doing something unexpected. Also, stimulating a student's sense of discovery by posing questions or creating problems for him to solve holds his interest as well. Inquiry arousal can be achieved by using films, Power Point images, or music in class; a more novel approach to inquiry arousal could use the classroom itself as the stimulus by alternating the light source, moving chairs/desks to different positions, or holding class outside for a day. Students will remain interested simply because the methodology is unique.

This approach was borne out in a study by Hodges and Kim (2013). They investigated the effectiveness of a technique designed to improve college algebra students’ attitudes toward mathematics. Keller’s ARCS motivational design model was used as a guide for the development of a motivational video, which was delivered online. The authors found that “statistically significant results were observed for improved attitudes toward mathematics” (Hodges & Kim, 2013).

Once a student's attention is gained, he will only remain attentive if course material has relevance to him. Following Keller's model, teachers should "apply a series of teaching materials, instruction techniques, and activities relevant to learners' past experiences, prior knowledge, current interests, future expectation, and career goals" (Hung-Chang, & Ya-huei, 2008, p. 55). Students also tend to master material when they teach it to someone else; tutoring other students in the class will benefit the student by ensuring he understands the material and becomes confident as a learner ("ARCS Model," 2009). A teacher can further develop that confidence in several ways. First, she can allow the student to help create evaluative materials for the lesson. Second, the teacher can offer opportunities for the student to learn in increments while the material increases in difficulty. Third, she can offer immediate feedback to the student's attempts at success. Saunderson (2013), referring to Keller, adds that “all learning should build up a person’s confidence to understand and perform the acquired knowledge and skills. They must feel they can accomplish the learning objectives, or motivation will wane. That’s why spelling out the learning objectives and requirements for success ahead of time is essential” (Saunderson, 2013).

Realizing such success builds satisfaction within the student. When a student achieves success because he worked hard and applied what he learned, he is likely to repeat the same learning strategy. Reinforcing the positive behavior that creates success is a teacher's primary responsibility. That responsibility is achieved when a student can apply new material in practical experiences and have it evaluated positively. For example, a student can learn a geometry lesson by measuring a site for a school garden. A lesson in nutrition can have that same student plant vegetables, and a lesson in science can provide the task of caring for the crop once it is planted. The practicality of this experience provides a reward that is both intrinsic (personal pride) and extrinsic (admiration from other students and school personnel). Positive feedback from an instructor acts as a bonus to the student who is already satisfied with what he has achieved.

Convincing Faculty

The problem with any instructional design model is that unless it is actually used by faculty, it offers little value. While Keller created ARCS to design instructional methods to increase student motivation, Surry and Land (2000), used ARCS to focus on faculty. Their aim was to increase faculty motivation to use technology in their courses:

To pinpoint the reasons faculty have not jumped on the technology bandwagon is impossible, simply because every instructor is different. However, these researchers believe that even the smallest use of technology in class will benefit both faculty and students, and they offer the following strategies as examples.

• Electronic mail is an easy way for faculty and students to communicate. That communication can include a notice that class has been cancelled or it can be more private, discussing grades or personal issues students may be having. Email can also act as a way for a class to communicate with each other for class discussions or peer reviews (p. 146).
• The World Wide Web (WWW) makes researching topics and managing large classes practical and simple. "While use of the Web in this sense does not represent a dramatic shift or redefinition of teaching and learning practices, it is nonetheless used to solve very real and pragmatic classroom problems" like assessing the reliability of a website or collecting "live" (real-time) data like stock market gains (p. 146).

More recently, Michael Green wrote of the relevance of ARCS to designing a Web-based laboratory class (2011). He argued that the flexibility of the ARCS motivation model “is a good fit for Web-based course design because it supports activities that facilitate consistent student engagement and self-directed experiential learning” (Green, 2011).

• Course management systems like Black Board™ allow for minimal or maximal use by faculty in that teachers can simply post student grades to the system (so students always know how they are doing in the class) or teach classes in an entirely online format. While both minimal and maximal use offers convenience for faculty and students, setting up either situation requires training and a fluent knowledge of the system's capabilities.

Surry and Land (2000) recommend that ARCS be used to motivate faculty when the following is considered:

Students use technology every day — sometimes several times a day — so it follows that it would be good practice to utilize technology as an instruction method (or supplement) whenever possible, especially when it can improve student success. School administrations may need to offer release time, financial bonuses, and paid training to faculty to motivate the use of technology in classes. Most faculty already use email, so sending messages to students isn't a huge leap toward a new way of teaching; neither is making students use the Web to search for information. Course management systems offer faculty the ability to keep students notified of their grades at all times; especially important for freshmen. Whether a college needs fully online courses or not, posting a syllabus, class announcements, and student grades in a secure place to be viewed 24/7 is good practice, and with a few hours of training can be easily achieved.

Applications

Educational Software

Keller's model of motivation has been used by educators and instructional designers in many countries. It's been proven successful, and as a result, Learning Through Sports, LLC™ created an interactive software that allows elementary and middle-school students to play various sports while learning school material at the same time. The "Kid's College™ program offers eight interactive sports activities that each contain hundreds of questions correlating to state standards in math, reading, and language at the grades K-8 level" (Mills & Sorenson, n. d., p. 2-3). The games in Kids College™ gain and maintain user interest because they "appeal to the sensory level of students. They can see and hear a basketball going through a hoop or a bat hitting a baseball" (Mills & Sorenson, n. d., p. 4). The games can be specific in nature in that teachers can create the questions that are used in the database. Questions can be formulated directly from what is covered in class and used to gain interest in the game.

Kids College™ also has rewards built into the system, such as a crowd cheering and applauding in response to events in the game. The games are also personalized; game users get to pick their teams. From the comfort of a living room couch, they can play baseball for their favorite team and see their own name on their player's uniform. As the player responds correctly to the questions posed, the difficulty of the questions increases, as does the difficulty of the game (Mills & Sorenson, n. d., p. 5-7). When the user answers incorrectly, the opposing team gets the opportunity to take the ball and score, which makes the student accountable for incorrect responses (p. 8). In addition to teaching responsibility, the game also focuses on specific goals for the lesson from the class. Mills & Sorenson explain,

As the student continues to answer questions correctly, his athlete (or team, depending on the game), plays well, and his confidence increases, which increases his satisfaction and motivation. If, however, his confidence decreases and he hesitates, "the computer will offer prompts … These prompts help the student further understand the learning requirements and how to be successful in the game, thus increasing confidence" (Mills & Sorenson, n. d, p. 12). Being prompted with a hint about the course content allows the student to reconsider his first response as well. Within seconds, he then must assess what he knows, consider a new response, and come up with a new answer. He then either progresses in the game and to a more difficult question, or he is prompted again with another hint. Either way, he develops a system for recalling information in a short period of time, which covers all aspects of the ARCS model.

Personalized Messages

Kim and Keller (2008) used personalized messages to determine if student motivation would increase in a required general education undergraduate class (p. 36). Used as a means of intervention, the messages "contained study tips designed to improve students' motivation and study habits, and thereby result in higher achievement" (p. 37). Using the ARCS model, Kim and Keller (2008) designed three different messages that were handed directly to students or left on students' desks between classes. The messages were not discussed so as to not call attention to the fact that they were distributed, but they were coded by Kim and Keller as MVEM (motivational messages).

Students took graded exams prior to completing a survey about their motivation in the course, satisfaction with grades they'd earned in the class, and their study habits regarding course material (p. 42). If a student indicated in the survey that he was satisfied with his grades in the course, he was assigned to the group that received the non-personalized messages. Those who were unsatisfied received messages like this one:

Kim and Keller (2008) report that the students who received the personalized messages described having higher levels of confidence and motivation when compared to the students who received messages that were not personalized (p. 45). In this age of technology, any personalized message offered on a piece of paper (as opposed to a computer screen or cell phone interface) is noteworthy of attention. Additionally, these students could use the advice they were given in the privacy of their own rooms, on their own time with a probable academic benefit as a reward.

Student Retention

Retention has become a recent buzzword on college campuses, and it would seem that students who are motivated to succeed — to graduate from college — are those that don't need intervention strategies. However, for students deemed at risk for attrition (first-generation college students, those with low high school GPAs, those with learning disabilities), increasing their motivation may improve their chances of persistence. Addressing the issue of attrition, Professor Keller notes that,

The ARCS model might be easily applied to increasing student retention. It may be that colleges need to create a buddy-system for incoming freshmen and that once students arrive on campus they be reminded on a consistent basis that they attended college with a goal in mind. Perhaps encouraging messages could be sent whenever students log into a campus computer; the messages could remind students that persisting in college requires four things from them. They need to pay attention — not just in class but to college life as a whole: it is easy to spot students who make bad choices. Also, they can be encouraged to apply new course content to what they already know, thereby making it relevant to them. Similarly, they need have confidence in their ability to succeed in college, especially those students who have been identified as at risk. Finally, upon logging into a library computer, students could receive inspirational messages about being satisfied by even the smallest achievements they make. Whether in email messages or embedded into the curricula of every class, the ARCS model can increase the motivation of students and might become the newer buzzword on college campuses.

Viewpoints

Issues in Online Learning

Use of the ARCS model has been proven effective in several studies noted here. Helping a student become confident within the asynchronous environment of an online course, however, is not. Huett et al. (2008) studied the confidence dimension of Keller's motivation design by examining students in an online undergraduate course. For students to be successful in online courses, they must be independent learners who have confidence in their ability to succeed. Online course materials must be crafted intentionally to foster motivation; they must also provide consistent methods that encourage student confidence. However, Huett et al. (2008) note that this may not be possible in that "there is insufficient evidence to support claims that learner motivation can be isolated or compartmentalized into separate categories" (p. 114). In other words, it may not be possible to foster confidence specifically without also focusing on attention, relevance, and satisfaction.

According to Huett et al. (2008), "Confidence is the interplay between desire for success and fear of failure… [in that] learners who expect to succeed demonstrate more confidence than learners who expect to fail" (p. 114). Yet, the researchers were not convinced that confidence in and of itself could be manipulated by motivation in the case of online learning situations.

Huett and his research team conducted a study including 81 undergraduate students enrolled in an online course in Texas. Students were randomly chosen for the treatment group or the control group (p. 116) and participation was voluntary (p.120). Keller (1993) created an Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) to determine the effect of teaching materials on student motivation. IMMS was presented to students in the Huett et al. (2008) study in addition to a pre and post test to measure academic performance (p. 120). Confidence-building emails were created and sent to students in the treatment group as part of the online class. The control group received no special emails. At the conclusion of the study, there was no "statistically significant difference in confidence between the groups" (p. 121). However, there was a notable difference in academic performance for the groups, with the treatment group performing better than the control group (p. 122). Additionally, "there were differences noted for attention, … relevance, … satisfaction, … and overall motivation, … but not confidence" (p. 123). In other words, the students in the treatment group performed better and were more motivated than the control group, but they did not identify feeling more confident than the other group.

It may be that isolating confidence is simply not possible. Students gain confidence when they receive positive feedback from an instructor, when they feel comfortable in their learning environment, and when they perform successfully on a given task. It is possible that students in the Huett et al., (2000) study were uncomfortable with the course environment — the online format — and they didn't feel connected with other students or the instructor of the class. Whatever the reason, however, it should be noted that confidence-building tactics for students in online classes is an important aspect of instructional design.

By creating the ARCS model, John Keller essentially drew a road map for instruction. Teaching students who are not motivated to learn can be a painstaking process; following the ARCS road map can certainly make the process easier. It can also encourage faculty to be more creative, which increases their motivation as well.

Terms & Concepts

ARCS Model: A motivational/instructional design created by John Keller; based on the premise that attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction (ARCS) create and/or determine a student's ability to be motivated to learn.

Attention: The focus or consideration people give to a thought, topic, or idea.

Computer Based Instruction (CBI): Any type of teaching that relies on computers for its implementation. Teaching/learning can occur asynchronously (at different times for teachers and learners) or synchronously (at the same time for teacher and learners).

Confidence: The belief a person has in his or her ability to be successful.

Motivation: The incentive to begin or continue to do something.

Relevance: The meaning or importance attributed to an idea, concept or material item.

Satisfaction: The feeling of contentment when a need or desire is fulfilled.

Bibliography

ARCS model of motivational design (Keller). (2009). Index of Learning Theories and Models. Retrieved October 22, 2009 from Learning-Theories.com. http://www.learning-theories.com/kellers-arcs-model-of-motivational-design.html

Carr, A. M. & Carr, C. S. (2000). ARCS — motivation theory. Innovations in Distance Education. Retrieved October 19, 2009 from Pennsylvania State University website: http://ide.ed.psu.edu/IDDE/ARCS.htm

ChanLin, L-J. (2009). Applying motivational analysis in a Web-based course. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 46, 91-103. Retrieved September 18, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=36518287&site=ehost-live

Green, M. (2012). Designing a web-based laboratory class to engage 21st century learners. Journal of Applied Learning Technology, 2, 24–28. Retrieved December 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90043834&site=ehost-live

Hodges, C.B., & Kim, C. (2013). Improving college students’ attitudes toward mathematics. Techtrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 57, 59–66. Retrieved December 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=92889479&site=ehost-live

Huett, J. B., Moller, L., Young, J., Bray, M. & Huett, K. C. (2008). Supporting the distant student: The effect of ARCS-based strategies on confidence and performance. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9, 113-126. Retrieved September 25, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=34391075&site=ehost-live

Hung-Chang, L. & Ya-huei, W. (2008). Applying the ARCS motivation model in technological and vocational education. Contemporary Issues in Education Research, 1, 53-58.

Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10, 2-10.

Keller, J. M. (2006). ARCS Motivational Model. Retrieved October 19, 2009 from ARCSModel.com. http://www.arcsmodel.com/home.htm

Kim, C-M & Keller, J. M. (2008). Effects of motivational and volitional email messages (MVEM) with personal messages on undergraduate students' motivation, study habits and achievement. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39, 36-51. Retrieved September 20, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=28327255&site=ehost-live

Mills, R. J., & Sorensen, N. (n. d.). Kids College™ 2004: An Implementation of the ARCS Model of Motivational Design. Retrieved October 13, 2009 from: http://www.learnin.com/img.asp?id=1706.

Saunderson, R. (2013). Motivating learners to learn. Training, 50, 62–63. Retrieved December 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89045558&site=ehost-live

Surry, D. W. & Land, S. M. (2000). Strategies for motivating higher education faculty to use technology. Innovations in Education & Training International, 37, 145-153. Retrieved September 25, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4220594&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Astleitner, H. & Keller, J. (1995). A model for motivationally adaptive computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 27, 270-280. Retrieved September 28, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9509051900&site=ehost-live

Babe, T. (1995). The validation of relevance as an independent dimension of the ARCS motivational model of instructional design. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University.

Keller, J. M. (1984). The use of the ARCS model of motivation in teacher traning. In Shaw, K., & Trott, A.J. (Eds.). Aspects of Educational Technology, Vol. XVII. 140 — 145. London: Kogan Page.

Keller, J. M. (1999a). Motivation in cyber learning environments. International Journal of Educational Technology, 1, 7-30.

Keller, J. M. (1999b). Using the ARCS motivational process in computer-based instruction and distance education. New Directions for Teaching & Learning, 78, p39. Retrieved September 28, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9178914&site=ehost-live

Knowlton, A., Savage, T., & Shellnut, B. (1998). Using the ARCS Model to Design Multimedia College Engineering Courses. Paper presented at the National Convention of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, St. Louis, MO.

Kupritz, V. W., & Laszlo, F. (2003). The identification of online learning motives in use by undergraduate students. Delta Phi Epsilon Journal, 45, 63-72.

Means, T. B., Jonassen, D.H., & Dwyer, F.M. (1997). Enhancing relevance: Embedded ARCS strategies vs. purpose. Educational Technology, Research & Development, 45, 5-17.

Shellnut, B. J. (1998). John Keller: A motivating influence in the field of instructional systems design. Biographical Information. Retrieved September 28, 2009 from ARCSmodel.com: http://www.arcsmodel.com/pdf/Biographical%20Information.pdf