Learners who are Exceptional

This paper provides a general overview of the learners who are exceptional. The learner who is exceptional is multifaceted and complex. In this paper, the reader will find summary information on the legislative and societal influences involved in educating the exceptional learner. A definition of learners who are exceptional is provided. Service delivery models, educational trends, parental roles and teacher characteristics are also discussed.

Keywords Autism; Consultative; Collaborative; Education for All Handicapped Children Act; Family-Centered; Gifted; Inclusion; Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 2004 (IDEA 2004); Individualized Education Plan (IEP); Learning Disability; Multicultural; Preventive; Pull-Out; Related Services; Residential Facility; Self-Contained; Team Teaching; Twice-Exceptional Learner

Overview

In the United States, the right to education for all children has been determined by the legal system to be a fundamental right. The changes in societal attitude as well as the legal basis toward learners who are exceptional can be traced through the decades. Prior to the 1800s, education for the learner who is exceptional was not prevalent. In the 19th century, education pioneers such as Horace Mann and Samuel Howe began to advocate for learners who are exceptional (Gravani, 2007; Smith & Luckasson, 1995). These early pioneers established residential schools for individuals who were deaf, blind, orphaned, or delinquent (Gravani, 2007; Smith & Luckasson, 1995). Initially, the residential schools were modeled on schools established in Europe (Smith & Luckasson, 1995).

Howe is credited with promoting the idea that learners who are exceptional could learn in regular classrooms with peers without disabilities (Gravani, 2007; Smith & Luckasson, 1995). Amazingly, this concept began in the late 1800s and slowly spread throughout the United States. As a result, legal and societal views began to focus on creating equal educational opportunity for all individuals. In terms of legal mandates, Brown v. the Board of Education and the authorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1975 (IDEA) are often cited as major catalysts for shaping the education of learners who are exceptional (Smith & Luckasson, 1995). However, it is important to note that without the civil rights movement society may not have expanded its viewpoints to include all children, regardless of ability.

Since Brown v. the Board of Education, legal and societal views have focused on creating equal educational opportunity for all individuals (Fagan & Warden, 1996; Fletcher-Janzen & Reynolds, 2000). In terms of education, equal opportunity refers to the right for a child to be educated regardless of his or her physical, social, or mental capability. The evolution of education for children who are exceptional has required numerous adaptations or modifications. Ongoing changes in educating children who are exceptional have also benefited children considered to be normal learners (Smith & Luckasson, 1995). As part of a democratic society, education is considered to be the gateway to economic and political independence.

The education of learners who are exceptional is often referred to as special education. For learners who are exceptional, great strides have been made as a result of the enactment of the Individuals with Disabilities with Education Act (IDEA). For example, learners who are exceptional now receive special education services in the local public school. Additionally, service delivery has expanded from self-contained classrooms to inclusive services.

The goal of education is to produce an educated society and workforce. In terms of learners who are exceptional, the debate is ongoing on the role of education in terms of how to educate learners who are exceptional to meet the goal of education.

Legislative & Societal Influences

Since the establishment of the first residential schools, states have been involved in and have provided funding for special education services. Initially, involvement and funding were limited to individuals who were deaf, blind, orphaned, physically or mentally challenged, or juvenile delinquents (Smith & Luckasson, 1995).

World War II is often credited with causing a major societal shift in how individuals with disabilities are viewed. Many young men returned to the United States and needed various services due to war related injuries, and the field of rehabilitation began in the United States. With the growth of this field and the increased societal pressure to educate all children, rehabilitative practices were merged into a specialized field of special education.

The short supply of properly trained teachers and related staff led to the federal government's taking a more active role in the education of children who are exceptional. In the late sixties, as part of President Johnson's War on Poverty, the federal government began to implement programs for exceptional children in the public schools.

The passage of the Education for All Handicapped Children Act Public Law 94-142 (P.L. 94-142) in 1975 reflected the importance society placed on educating individuals with disabilities. While P.L. 94-142, currently referred to as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004), has undergone many reauthorizations by Congress, the primary intent of this federal law remains to mandate special education and related services to individuals with disabilities age birth to 21 years.

Defining Learners who are Exceptional

In this paper, the term learner who is exceptional will be used instead of exceptional learner. The purpose behind this terminology is that individuals with disabilities should always be thought of as individuals or persons first instead of their disability.

A learner who is exceptional is a complex and multifaceted individual who is difficult to define (Kirk & Gallagher, 1979). The democratic society in the United States maintains that equal opportunity should exist for all individuals. In terms of education, equal opportunity often refers to the right for a child to be educated regardless of his or her physical, social, or mental capability. Thus, a learner who is exceptional represents many medical, psychological, and developmental categories.

In 1958, Cruickshank defined an exceptional learner as "one who deviates intellectually, physically, socially, or emotionally so markedly from what is considered to be normal growth and development that he cannot receive maximum benefit from a regular school program and requires a special class or supplementary instruction and services" (p. 3). While a broad based definition that encompasses many possibilities, Cruickshank's definition does continue to reflect current thought on learners who are exceptional (Nielsen, & Higgins, 2005; Whitworth, 1993).

The term exceptional learner is a term that includes many categories and degrees of disability. Cruickshank (1958) reported that the term was initially used to represent children with high intellectual abilities. However, other terms such as deviant, atypical, or handicapped have also been used over the years to describe learners who are exceptional (Kirk & Gallagher, 1979; Smith & Luckasson, 1995).

The literature defines children who are exceptional in numerous ways as these learners encompass a wide range of abilities. For example, individuals who are considered gifted or talented are considered exceptional. However, society often thinks of learners who are exceptional as children who are having difficulty learning; physically challenged; or demonstrating social and/or emotional difficulties to such a degree as to deviate from the average peer (Kirk & Gallagher, 1979; Smith & Luckasson, 1995).

Defining the learner who is exceptional requires one to review the research literature from fields such as psychology, medicine, education, allied health (i.e., speech-language pathology, occupational therapy, etc) and sociology. Regardless of the field, there is congruence that learners who are exceptional can be defined as individuals who require modifications in order to benefit from their educational program.

Applications

Service Delivery Models for Learners who are Exceptional

The largest service delivery model for learners who are exceptional is special education services. In order to receive special education services the exceptional leaner must be assessed and determined to be in need of services. Services can range from specialized teaching services, special materials and/or equipment, or related services (i.e., speech-language pathology, occupational therapy, assistive technology, etc.).

Available service delivery models for learners who are exceptional are varied and complex. The types of service delivery models to follow are representative of available models; however, these models do not represent all of the available options. The models discussed are presented as absolutes but should not be interpreted as such and should be used as a reference point. In other words, learners who are exceptional are a diverse group and service delivery models should be based on services that meet the needs of the individual, not on services available.

The service delivery models to be discussed are:

• Pull-out;

• Consultative;

• Collaborative;

• Team teaching;

• Self-contained;

• Inclusion;

• Preventive.

Pull-Out

The pull-out service delivery model provides intervention services outside of the classroom environment. In other words, the individual with diverse learning needs is removed (pulled-out) from the classroom for services (Blosser & Neidecker, 2002). Direct services (i.e., tutoring; speech-language; occupational therapy, etc.) are provided on an intermittent schedule determined by the Individualized Education Plan (IEP).

Consultative

Consultative services are often considered an indirect service delivery model. This type of service delivery model finds the special education teacher or related service provider providing the classroom teacher with information in order to alter or adjust the classroom environment or teaching strategies in order for the exceptional learner to remain in the regular classroom setting (Blosser & Neidecker, 2002).

Collaborative

In comparison to the consultative model, the collaborative model allows all stakeholders to engage in creative problem solving (Blosser & Neidecker, 2002). Collaboration between stakeholders allows the expertise of each team member to be considered and to allow for interaction.

Team Teaching

Team teaching is a service delivery model where two teachers share students but teach specific subjects. Team teaching is similar to collaboration in that each member collaborates on adjusting the environment or curriculum to meet the needs of learners who are exceptional.

Self-Contained Classroom

The self-contained classroom is the type of setting often associated with learners who are exceptional. In this type of service delivery model, the special education teacher is the primary teacher and offers instruction in the classroom to a specific disability or to multiple disabilities (Blosser & Neidecker, 2002).

Inclusion

Inclusive service delivery is an educational philosophy that proposes educating learners who are exceptional with peers without exceptional needs. The philosophy extends to extracurricular activities and the community.

Prevention

Although not a service delivery model, prevention is considered a part of service delivery. The goal of preventive services is to alter or delay the need for the other types of service delivery models discussed earlier. Early intervention services and education in identifying at-risk children can aid in decreasing the need for special education services for learners who are exceptional.

Trends in Educating Children who are Exceptional

The service delivery models discussed are considered traditional models. However, as society continues to adjust the perceptions and educational rights of learners who are exceptional, alterations to the types of models available and used will continue. Factors that have and will continue to effect service delivery models include changes in school populations, limited funding, culturally and linguistically diverse students, and standards-based reform movements.

School populations have undergone many changes over the past few decades. The implementation of IDEA and its many reauthorizations have changed how schools educate individuals with diverse learning needs. Another change in school populations are the changes in demographics in the American society. Learners who are exceptional who are culturally and/or linguistically diverse present a unique challenge for educators.

Special education services represent millions of dollars in educational spending. Society has demanded that all children should be educated. However, many question the need for an increase in spending or the diversion of funds for learners who are exceptional versus regular learners. In recent years, taxpayers increased their demand for information on the effectiveness of services.

The focus on effectiveness of educational practices has led to standards based reforms in school districts. The federal government has required that all schools should be held accountable for educational methods and for services provided to all children.

Parental Roles in the Education of Children who are Exceptional

Over the past few decades, parents have increased their involvement in the education of children who are exceptional. Parents have led the movement of educating children who are exceptional from institutions to public schools. In 1979, Gallagher summarized the role of parents as evolving from being scapegoats (i.e., the cause of the child's problem) to program organizers (developers of school based programs) to political activists (changing legislation) to program participants (working with educators).

Currently, many educators, particularly in the field of early intervention, have recognized that it is more effective to provide family-centered educational services versus child specific intervention. Family-centered education recognizes that the parent is the first teacher and the family has an important role in integrating educational objectives into the family or community environment. As such, parents continue to shape and influence programs and legislation.

Teacher Characteristics & Roles in the Education of Learners who are Exceptional

Since the late 1920s, teacher-training programs have provided additional coursework in teaching learners who are exceptional. The teacher role has evolved from being trained to work in residential schools to being trained to provide collaborative and/or consultative services to parents and regular education teachers.

According to Kirk and Gallagher (1979), Lord and Kirk discussed the roles teachers need to work with learners who are exceptional. Lord and Kirk stated that teachers needed to be self-directed; be patient and persistent in efforts; be able to adapt teaching methods to learner styles; be physically able to provide services; and, have good personal adjustment.

The characteristics outlined by Lord and Kirk (as cited in Kirk & Gallagher, 1979), are as applicable today as in the past. For instance, teachers of learners who are exceptional need to be independent in establishing schedules or aligning the curriculum to meet the needs of the child. While all teachers need patience and persistence, these attributes are necessary due to slow progress and challenges presented by the school and home environment. Teachers need to be willing to try new teaching methods and apply evidence based research methods to match the needs of the child versus the school. The high demands and stress of the job require that teachers have a healthy support system and are able to separate the job from the home life.

The role of the teacher for exceptional children is complex and multifaceted. The role of the special education teacher is influenced by diversity, complexity, and accountability (York-Barr, Sommerness, Duke, & Ghere, 2005). As a result, the field of special education is experiencing a shortage of qualified teachers. Unfortunately, many teachers are leaving the field due to the multiple tasks required which are thought to contribute to teacher burnout.

York-Barr, Sommerness, Duke, & Ghere (2005) reported barriers identified by special education teachers. Primarily, teachers identified the types and number of job responsibilities that interfered with the teaching process. For instance, job responsibilities included developing and implementing Individualized Educational Programs (IEP); supervising paraprofessionals; collaborating and/or coordinating services; and, modifying, designing, and providing instruction.

Teachers also discussed the types of activities they are engage in a typical workday or week. Activities included:

• Direct instruction;

• Collaborating with other school personnel;

• Supervising paraprofessionals;

• Preparing lesson plans and activities for a variety of diverse learners;

• Recess or bus duty;

• Lunch;

• Paperwork; and

• Any other interruption that needed attention (i.e., behavior, transportation issues, etc.).

While the information provided is a brief summary of York-Barr, Sommerness, Duke, & Ghere's, (2005) findings, the information demonstrates how the role of the special education teacher has evolved over the years and why special education has a shortage of well-qualified teachers.

Viewpoints

New Directions for Learners who are Exceptional

Twice-Exceptional Learners

An interesting phenomenon that has been gaining attention in the literature since the late 1970s is that of the twice-exceptional learner. The twice-exceptional learner can be defined in many ways, including the grouping of what may appear to be two very diverse learning styles: a learning difference and giftedness. However, research is providing evidence that educators may need to rethink learners who are exceptional as a singular disability (Cash, 1999; Nielson, 2002; Nielson & Higgins, 2005; Obi & Obiakor, 2001). A brief review of three examples of what the literature refers to as twice-learners who are exceptional is provided below.

The first example of a twice-exceptional learner is a learner who may be gifted and learning disabled (Cash, 1999; Nielson, 2002; Nielson & Higgins, 2005). Nielson (2002) stated that the estimated prevalence rate of such learners who are exceptional is two to five percent of the special education population. Nielsen and Higgins (2005) describe the twice-exceptional learner as an individual whose intelligence scores are comparable to those of gifted students. However, the reading and writing skills of the twice-exceptional learner are similar to learners with learning disabilities.

The literature has provided characteristics of twice-learners who are exceptional in areas of giftedness and areas of learning disabilities (Nielson & Higgins, 2005; Nielson, 2002).

The characteristics of giftedness included:

• Superior vocabulary;

• Talents or interest areas unrelated to school;

• High-level problem solving and reasoning;

• Unusual imagination; and,

• Extremely curious.

In comparison to the gifted characteristics, these learners also demonstrate characteristics of learning disabilities such as deficient academic skills; frustrated by school; processing deficits; difficulty following directions; and lack of organization.

Another interesting category of the twice-exceptional learner is the learner who is autistic and gifted (Cash, 1999). Focusing, negative behaviors, visual thinking, friendships, and hyper-vigilant senses are considered to be behavioral traits shared between the exceptional learner who is gifted and autistic (Cash, 1999).

Cash provided examples of these shared traits which can be summarized in the following manner. The learner focuses or concentrates on a specific area of interest, thinks visually, or can demonstrate negative behaviors such as being rude, uncooperative, or verbally verbose. Additionally, the learner can have difficulty forming friendships and may be easily over stimulated or anxious.

The last example of a twice-exceptional learner is one who is culturally and linguistically diverse and gifted. An overview of the over identification of African-American learners in special education can be found in the research literature (VanTassel-Baska, Feng, Chandler, Quek, and Swanson, n.d.; Obi & Obiakor,2001). Typically, the over representation of African-American students is primarily evident in the learning disability classrooms versus gifted classrooms. The authors remind educators that students who are from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds will increase in the educational systems. Thus, educational programs need to adapt teaching styles to reach the diverse learner instead of arbitrarily thinking of them as learners who are exceptional (Brown, 2007).

While the diversity of learners who are exceptional have been briefly reviewed, the reader must keep in mind that the provided representation is only a superficial overview of the different traditional and contemporary viewpoints of individuals who learn in different ways. As the inclusive movement and special education practices, policies, and laws continue to evolve, society will be challenged on educating these individuals, as they do not fit into the cookie cutter educational system. The learner who is exceptional will remain a dynamic entity that requires collaboration among all stakeholders in order to successful.

Terms & Concepts

Autism: Autism is often referred to as a complex developmental disability as it is identified during the developmental period. Autism occurs along a continuum; is a life long disability; and, can affect an individual's communication and social.

Education for All Handicapped Children Act Public Law 94-142 (P.L. 94-142): In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act Public Law 94-142 (P.L. 94-142) was established to provide free appropriate public education to individuals with disabilities. P.L. 94-142 has undergone reauthorizations by Congress and is currently referred to as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004).

Gifted: Gifted is defined in the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, as "students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities."

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 2004 (IDEA 2004): IDEA 2004 is a federal law that continues to mandate special education and related services to individuals with disabilities age birth to 21 years.

Learning Disability: A learning disability is a disorder that can affect a person's academic skills in areas such as speaking, listening, reading, writing, and spelling.

Multicultural: Multicultural is when an individual is strongly influenced by or exhibits distinctiveness of several cultural groups.

Pull-Out: When an individual is removed from the regular classroom in order to receive educational services they are considered to be "pullout".

Related Services: Related services include but are not limited to transportation, counseling, school health services, speech-language pathology etc. that are necessary for the individual with a disability to benefit from special education services.

Residential Facility: A residential facility is based upon the concept of the boarding school. Typically, the facility provides room, board, and educational services to the individuals residing there.

Twice-Exceptional Learner: A twice-exceptional learner is an individual who exhibits the characteristics of more than one disability group.

Bibliography

Blosser, J. & Neidecker, E. (2002). School programs in speech-language pathology: Organization and service delivery. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Brown, M. R. (2007). Educating all students: Creating culturally responsive teachers, classrooms, and schools. Intervention in School & Clinic, 43 , 57-62. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=26156208&site=ehost-live

Cash, A. (1999). A profile of gifted individuals with autism: The twice-exceptional learner. Roeper Reivew, 22 , 22-28. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2381488&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Cruickshank, W. & Johnson, G. (Eds.)(1958). Education of exceptional children and youth. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Fagan, T. K. & Warden, P. G. (1996). Historical encyclopedia of school psychology. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.

Fletcher-Janzen, E. & Reynolds, C. (2000). Encyclopedia of special education. New Jersey: Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Foley-Nicpon, M., Assouline, S. G., & Colangelo, N. (2013). Twice-exceptional learners: Who needs to know what?. Gifted Child Quarterly, 57, 169-180.Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87909360&site=ehost-live

Gravani, E. (2007). Educational history and legal landmarks. In E. H. Gravani & J. Meyer (Eds.), Speech, language, and hearing programs in schools: A guide for students and practitioners (pp. 3-21).Texas: Pro Ed Publishers.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Amendments 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq. (2004).

Johnson, L. A. & Gramm, S. (1990). Goal setting and its application with exceptional learners, Preventing School Failure, 34 , 4-9. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9604173849&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Kirk, S. & Gallagher, J. (1979). Educating exceptional children. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

McCallum, R., Bell, S., Coles, J., Miller, K., Hopkins, M. B., & Hilton-Prillhart, A. (2013). A model for screening twice-exceptional students (gifted with learning disabilities) within a response to intervention paradigm. Gifted Child Quarterly, 57, 209-222. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90054000&site=ehost-live

Neumeister, K., Yssel, N., & Burney, V. H. (2013). The influence of primary caregivers in fostering success in twice-exceptional children. Gifted Child Quarterly, 57, 263-274. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90053998&site=ehost-live

Nielsen, M. E. (2002). Gifted students with learning disabilities: Recommendations for identification and programming. Exceptionality, 10 , 93-111. Retrieved December 15, 2007 from EBSCO Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6615012&site=ehost-live

Nielsen, M. E. & Higgins, L.D. (2005). The eye of the storm services and programs for twice-exceptional learners. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38 , 8-15. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18367486&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Obi, S.O. & Obiakor, F. (2001). Empowering African American exceptional learners: Vision for the new millennium. Western Journal of Black Studies, 25 , 93-101. Retrieved December 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6658605&site=ehost-live

Smith D. & Luckason, R. (1995). Introduction to special education: Teaching in an age of challenge (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Sullivan, S. C. & Rebhorn, L. (2002). PEGS: Appropriate education for exceptionally gifted students. Roeper Review, 24 , 221-226. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=7335966&site=ehost-live

Whitworth, J. (1993). Special education: An overview. Clearing House, 66 , 132-134. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9705041244&site=ehost-live&scope=site

VanTassel-Baska, J., Feng, A., Chandler, K., Quek, C., & Swanson, J. (n.d). Case studies of special needs gifted learners. Retrieved October 31, 2007, from http://66.102.1.104/scholar?hl=en&lr=&client=netscape-pp&q=cache:_e0CQgt7nj8J:cfge.wm.edu/documents/AERA2006-ProjectSTAR.doc+prevalence+of+exceptional+learners

York-Barr, J., Sommerness, J., Duke, K., & Ghere, G. (2005). Special educators in inclusive education programms: Reframing their work as teacher leadership, International Journal of Inclusive Education, 9 , 193-215.

Suggested Reading

Assouline, S., Nicpon, M., & Huber, D. (1986). The impact of vulnerabilities and strengths on the academic experiences of twice-exceptional students: A message to school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 10 , 14-24. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22814967&site=ehost-live

Bradley, R., Danielson, L., & Doolittle, J. (2007). Responsiveness to intervention: 1997 to 2007. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39 , 8-12 Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=25204848&site=ehost-live

Cohen, M. (1986). Intrinsic motivation in the special education classroom. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19 . Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4734300&site=ehost-live

Council for Exceptional Children. (n.d.). Retrieved December 15, 2007, from www.cec.sped.org/.

Dahlberg, W. (1992). The childhood dilemma of unusual intellect. Roeper Review, 15 , 7-10. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9604301633&site=ehost-live

Donnelly, J.A., & Altman, R. (1994). The autistic savant: Recognizing and serving the gifted student with autism. Roeper Review, 16 , 252-256. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9411284057&site=ehost-live

Gargiulo, R. M. (2005). Special education in contemporary society. Florence, KY: Wadsworth Publishing.

Grandin, T. (2004). Label of 'autism' could hold back gifted children. Nature, 430 (6998), 399-399. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13868149&site=ehost-live

Kaufman, James, et al.(2005). Exceptional learners: Introduction to special education. New York: Allyn & Bacon.

McMillan, I. (2006). Special education system needs a fresh approach. Learning Disability Practice, 9 , 5-5. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22385366&site=ehost-live

Milner, H. R., & Ford, D. Y. (2007). Cultural considerations in the underrepresentation of culturally diverse elementary students in gifted education. Roeper Review,29 , 166-173 Retrieved December 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=24811167&site=ehost-live

Morrison, W. & Rizza, M. (2007). Creating a toolkit for identifying twice-exceptional

students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 31 , 57-76. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=27082512&site=ehost-live

Peck, Odom, & Bricker, (Eds). (1992). Integrating young children with disabilities into community programs: Ecological perspectives on research and implementation. Baltimore, MD: Paul Brookes.

Skinner, C. & Logan, P. (1997). Demonstration as a reading intervention for exceptional Learners. School Psychology Review, 26 . Retrieved November 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9710276291&site=ehost-live