Levels-of-processing effect
The levels-of-processing effect is a psychological concept that explores how the depth of mental processing influences memory retention. Unlike traditional memory models that categorize information into distinct storage areas, this theory posits that the quality of engagement with information determines how well it is remembered. Developed by psychologists Fergus I.M. Craik and Robert S. Lockhart in the early 1970s, the theory suggests that deeper processing, which involves understanding the meaning and context of information, leads to better recall compared to shallow processing, which focuses on superficial attributes like appearance or sound.
Shallow processing can be further divided into structural and phonemic levels, where attention is directed at either physical characteristics or sounds of the information, resulting in limited retention. In contrast, semantic processing, which is a form of deep processing, encourages a more meaningful connection to the information, enhancing its permanence in memory. Researchers have demonstrated that employing strategies such as linking new information to existing knowledge or visual imagery can significantly improve recall. Overall, the levels-of-processing effect emphasizes the importance of engaging with material in a thoughtful and meaningful way to enhance memory.
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Levels-of-processing effect
The levels-of-processing effect is a concept that addresses why people remember certain things and forget others. It is sometimes known as the levels-of-processing theory, or abbreviated as LOP. According to the theory, how well people remember things is dependent upon the depth of mental processing that occurred at the time the information was encountered. It states that memory is not a matter of long- and short-term recall, but rather a function of the intensity of the interaction between the information and the brain.
Background
The levels-of-processing theory originated in 1972 in the work of British cognitive psychologist Fergus I.M. Craik and Canadian-based Australian-born psychologist Robert S. Lockhart. Both men are considered to be extremely instrumental in advancing the understanding of how memory works. They conducted a series of experiments that tested people’s ability to remember words from a list of random terms.
During the experiments, Craik and Lockhart had the test participants focus on different aspects of the words. This was done to encourage them to learn the words in different ways. For example, participants were asked to focus on whether the words were written in lower case or capital letters. This had the effect of having the participants focus on a visual aspect of the words instead of their meaning and tended to cause them to have a superficial memory of the words later.
Other tests asked participants to focus on other aspects, such as whether the words rhymed, whether they were a particular type of animal or another item, or whether they could be used to complete a specific sentence. Craik and Lockhart determined that the different depths of attention these tasks encouraged affected how well the material was retained when they later tested the participants’ ability to recall the words. These tasks affected the level or degree to which the test subjects processed the material and subsequently affected their recall.
In 1975, Craik conducted additional studies with Canadian-based Russian experimental psychologist Endel Tulving. These studies and others conducted over the decades since have produced the same results. They supported the original research conducted by Craik and Lockhart. They also demonstrated that deeper recall helps with other information besides the lists of words used in the early studies, such as visual images and other types of information.
Overview
The levels-of-processing theory proposes that memory is a by-product of the brain’s effort to process information it encounters. The ways the brain focuses on processing a new bit of information affects how well it will be remembered, according to the effect. This is different than the multistore method that proposes memory is divided into three storage areas: sensory register, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
In the multistore method, memory is dependent on how often the brain practices or rehearses a particular bit of information. For example, when a person hears a mathematical equation once, it will be processed by the ears and become a sensory memory for a short time, perhaps just long enough for the person to write it down. If the person repeats the formula a few times, this practice will move the information to short-term memory, and he or she will be able to recall it for a few hours or days. If the person uses the formula daily in class or for homework, the information will move to long-term memory. The person will likely be able to recall the formula for months, if not years.
Instead of emphasizing how often the person uses the information, the levels-of-processing effect emphasizes the processes used during the person’s encounter with the information. The brain can either process the information in a shallow way or a deep way. Shallow processing limits recall, while deeper processing leads to better recall.
Shallow processing happens in two ways: structural and phonemic processing. In structural processing, the person is focused on physical aspects of the information, such as whether the letters of the words are written in lower case or capital letters, or whether they are printed in black or red. In phonemic processing, the emphasis is on the sound something makes, such as whether one word rhymes with another. This type of processing leads to what the multistore method calls short-term memory. According to the levels-of-processing effect, the material has not been sufficiently processed to allow it to be easily recalled for a long time. There has been little focus on the information itself; therefore, it does not become encoded in a way that helps with recall.
Deeper processing occurs when semantic processing is involved. In this form of information handling, the brain deals with the information in a more involved fashion. For instance, semantic processing would involve understanding the meaning of the word, knowing how it would be used in a sentence, and thinking about what words might be the opposite of the target word.
The research conducted by Craik, Lockhart, Tulving, and others demonstrates techniques that people can use to improve recall in everyday situations. Taking time to experience the information in different and deeper ways can help store the material for longer recall. For example, instead of simply reading a list of dates and important events over and over and trying to memorize them, a person can link each date and its event to a place on the route to school. This requires more in-depth thinking that is indicative of deeper processing. Connecting the information to a visual image is another way to induce deeper processing that improves recall. For example, a person trying to remember a grocery list might imagine sitting down at a table for a dinner that involves all of the items. These techniques are part of a method known as elaboration rehearsal and are proven methods for improving recall.
Bibliography
Baddeley, Alan D., and Graham J. Hitch. “Is the Levels of Processing Effect Language Limited?” Journal of Memory and Language, vol. 92, Feb. 2017, pp. 1–13.
Craik, Fergus I.M., and Endel Tulving. “Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory.” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1975, alicekim.ca/CraikTulving1975.pdf. Accessed 12 Jan. 2019.
“Depth of Processing.” Psychologist World, www.psychologistworld.com/memory/depth-processing. Accessed 12 Jan. 2019.
Ekuni, Roberta, et al. “Levels of Processing: The Evolution of a Framework.” Psychology and Neuroscience, vol. 4, no. 3, Dec. 2011, pp. 333–39.
McLeod, Saul. “Levels of Processing.” Simply Psychology, 2007, www.simplypsychology.org/levelsofprocessing.html. Accessed 12 Jan. 2019.
McLeod, Saul. “Multi Store Model of Memory.” Simply Psychology, 2007, www.simplypsychology.org/multi-store.html. Accessed 12 Jan. 2019.
Pappas, Christopher. “3 Tips to Apply the Levels of Processing Theory in eLearning Course Design.” eLearning Industry, 25 Aug. 2016, elearningindustry.com/tips-apply-levels-processing-theory-elearning-course-design. Accessed 12 Jan. 2019.
Woessner, Zachary W. “Interference and Levels of Processing.” Brown University, 15 May 2016, blogs.brown.edu/clps-1880d-s01-spring-2016/2016/05/15/interference-levels-of-processing/. Accessed 12 Jan. 2019.