Monoculturalism (Cultural Conservatism)

Monoculturalism encourages a normative cultural unity or cultural homogeneity, and it possesses negative attributes due to the philosophy encouraging ethnocentrism, absolutist thinking, naïve realism, lack of respect for other's opinions as well as the use of derogatory terms to describe customs different from one's own. Scholars have found that minority faculty members tend to feel isolated at predominantly White institutions, especially if they focus on issues such as social change and ethnic concerns. Many of their White counterparts may believe that they were hired as a result of affirmative action initiatives.

Keywords Assimilation; Cultural Conservatism; Culture; Diversity; Ethnocentrism; Monoculturalism; Multiculturalism; Naïve Realism; Political Correctness

Overview

Monoculturalism encourages a normative cultural unity or cultural homogeneity. For example, if a country has accepted a large number of immigrants, there will be initiatives to get these individuals to assimilate to the practices of the dominant culture. Monoculturalism tends to be spearheaded by individuals who seek to protect national cultures or identities that are perceived to be threatened, especially by attempts of globalization. Monoculturalism possesses negative attributes due to the philosophy encouraging ethnocentrism, absolutist thinking, naïve realism, lack of respect for other's opinions, and the use of derogatory terms to describe customs different from one's own.

How do these viewpoints affect the field of education? Southern Nazarene University (n.d.) prepared a statement for ethnocentrism, but the arguments can be used for all three viewpoints. Monocultural thought can have a negative impact on one's ability to learn about different cultures and may hinder the education environment in which students participate. If monoculturalism is prevalent in many of our educational institutions, the students in the majority may:

• Be led to make false assumptions about cultural differences.

• Experience problems in communicating with other students who have different cultures and value systems.

• Make premature judgments about others.

• Evaluate everyone based on their value system.

In the United States, Caucasians are perceived by some as the dominant group. The rules of the American culture are based on Caucasian values and beliefs. As the country diversifies, these concepts will become a problem. In order to fit into a global culture, students will need to become aware of a group of diverse cultures in order to interact with those that are sitting next to them in class. After reviewing the above-mentioned list, students will have to be open to:

• Checking their assumptions about people of different cultures.

• Making an effort to communicate with students from different cultures.

• Talking to diverse students about the various cultures.

• Finding out how the values of other cultures are similar and different from their own.

• Accepting that differences does not equate to inferiority.

Learning about the cultures of others can promote understanding versus division. Some knowledge about diverse culture and about the role of culture in human societies can prevent misunderstandings and increase the opportunity for friendly, productive interactions on the job, in the classroom, and the community at large.

Multiculturalism

The United States is moving toward being a society that has no ethnic majority. Therefore, it is important for education systems to provide opportunities for students to learn about individuals who are different than they are. Also, these institutions must be proactive and make an effort to provide the entire study body with information about the various cultures that are represented in their constituency. For example, the Middle Eastern, Hispanic and Asian population has increased in the United States, and the children are a part of the American educational system. Some critics argue that educational material should be prepared based on the different cultures.

"The demand for multiculturalism is strong in the contemporary world and is invoked in the making of social, cultural and political policies, especially in Western Europe and the United States" (Sen, 2006, par 1). Demographics suggest that the world is moving toward becoming a multi-ethnic and international culture (Visions, n.d.). Sen (2006) asserted that this should not be a surprise considering the fact that increased global contacts and interactions, especially extensive migrations, have positioned the diverse practices of different cultures in close proximity to one another. Teachers are in a powerful position to influence children and adolescents toward an understanding and appreciation of people from different ethnic groups. To avoid addressing the ethnic diversity of communities and the nation itself, a fundamental reality in the children's lives, is to shortchange students, leaving them unprepared for the challenges and reality of a multicultural society (Sawchuk, Taylor, Perry & Mt. Saint Mary's College, 1997).

Diversity

Many researchers and organizations have reported on the individual, institutional and societal benefits of diversity and teaching from culture-centered perspectives (Chang, Witt, Jones & Hakuta, 2000). For example, at the individual level, the benefits are generated as people become aware of and acknowledge racial differences. The institutional level is geared towards employers and focuses on how the organizational culture changes as a result of cross-cultural understanding. Benefits to society can be experienced as scholars continue to pursue research opportunities and address issues such as gender, race, ethnicity and affirmative action in the workplace.

Individual Level

Regardless of whether or not a person is on the job, in the community or at an educational institution, they will encounter experiences with individuals who are different than themselves. Many will be curious and welcome the opportunity to learn about other cultures and differences, whereas, some may not.

Not everyone supports diversity. Some view this concept as a hindrance to society that is as dangerous as communism. "Multiculturalism, as the new menace is known, has been denounced in the media as the new McCarthyism, the new fundamentalism, even the new totalitarianism - take your choice" (Ehrenreich, 1991, p. 84). Critics assert that followers of multiculturalism place too much emphasis on being politically correct at the risk of taking away a person's ability to have freedom of speech and freedom of thought. Being politically correct means constantly watching what one speaks in order to avoid offending someone else's value and belief system. Many conservative scholars believe that "when advocates of multiculturalism adopt the haughty stand of political correctness, they quickly descend to silliness or worse" (Ehrenreich, 1991, p. 85).

Institutional Level

"The function of the university is not simply to teach breadwinning, or to furnish teachers for the public schools or to be a centre of polite society; it is, above all, to be the organ of that fine adjustment between real life and the growing knowledge of life, an adjustment which forms the secret of civilization" (DuBois, 2005, p. 85). DuBois had a vision that institutions of higher education played a key role in shaping the minds of our future scholars. It was the institution's responsibility to bridge the gap between learning and taking the wealth of knowledge into the real world. The faculty members were charged with educating and preparing students to enter the real world, which was pluralistic and diverse. In order to achieve this goal, institutions had to provide an atmosphere and culture that allowed students to learn from different perspectives.

Societal Level

For the leadership of higher education institutions, diversity is not a luxury; it is a necessity. "With the changing demographics of student populations and the emergence by 2060 of a minority majority country, faculty and staff on university and college campuses must reflect the increasingly diverse nature of the United States population; homogeneity is not an alternative" (Evans and Chun, 2007, p. 2). In order to meet the needs of the students, faculty and staff must be prepared to play a role in the development of the student body. Faculty members can play a role in the classroom by assisting students in becoming successful professional adults regardless of their cultural differences (Sawchuk, Taylor, Perry & Mt. Saint Mary's College, 1997). This type of activity can be achieved in multicultural resource centers.

Applications

Ethnocentrism & Minority Faculty

Higher education has become concerned with the faculty shortage that was predicted to occur as a result of faculty member retirement. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) is an entity that tracks important statistics regarding the field of education. According to their records, almost half of the full-time faculty members are expected to retire between the years of 2017 and 2025. There is a concern about who will replace these individuals once they leave. This is an opportunity for those colleges desiring to increase their pool of minority faculty applicants to implement diversity plans to attract qualified candidates within the various demographics. Replacing retiring faculty opens the doors for institutions to renew their commitment to diversification.

"Effective recruiting and retaining ethnic and racial minority faculty members has been a major concern in higher education for the past decade" (Johnsrud & Sadao, 1998, p. 315). Rifkin (2003) claims that the number one reason cited for the slow growth of minority faculty representation is a small pool of potential minority candidates. Robertson and Frier (1994) noted that fewer minorities were selecting education and the social sciences as a career choice, which reduces the number of potential candidates for the liberal arts disciplines. Another factor in the decline of qualified minority faculty for the selection pool is the lack of formal academic preparation for teaching at the community college level. In the early seventies, there were programs that focused on this need. However, they were seen as "grossly inadequate and taught by narrow, subject matter specialists" (O'Banion, 1972, p. 84). As a result of this type of criticism, the programs were discontinued.

Still, some scholars (Boice, 1993; Stein, 1994) have found that ethnic and racial minority group members experience severe marginalization on campuses. Johnsrud and Sadao's (1998) study found that "the majority of the minority faculty members interviewed referred to a White Western orientation that they perceived as pervasive throughout the university-an orientation in keeping with the concept of elite racism that devalues any orientation that is not Western or White" (p. 329). Some of the participants in these studies have voiced concerns over being welcomed, appreciated and wanted on predominantly white campuses. Many stated that their white colleagues believed that they were hired as a result of affirmative action and did not deserve the positions (Menges & Exum, 1983). Minority faculty members reported that they were discouraged to focus on ethnic issues. If they chose to pursue scholarly work in this area, their work was devalued and dismissed as not being mainstream and self-serving (Reyes & Halcon, 1988). "Some felt pressured to cultivate scholarly interests that are acceptable for publication in White journals" (Johnsrud & Sadao, 1998). If their work focused on social change or minority issues, it was seen as nonacademic and inappropriate (Astin, 1997).

Viewpoints

Resegregation of Public Schools

There is a growing concern that the efforts of the Sixties and Seventies are being undermined. Tatum (2007) wrote a book to address these concerns as well as discussed some of the steps that the United States can take in order to make sure that the work was not in vain. She believes that opportunities for cross-racial contact are disappearing, especially in schools. In addition, there is a concern that there will be a reversal of all of the work that was done during the last five decades.

What are the adverse affects of resegregation? According to Tatum (2007), the negative consequences of resegregation would include:

• Decrease in opportunities of interracial contact and more tolerant racial attitudes.

• Decrease in the likelihood of students having a multi-racial social network of acquaintances or at least one close interracial friendship.

• The media will shape individual perceptions of different groups rather than students having the opportunity to have an actual relationship with a student of a different culture.

• The negative educational impact of attending high poverty schools on academic achievement regardless of the social-economic level of the family.

In order to make sure that no ground is lost, "White children will need to be in schools that are intentional about helping them understand social justice issues like prejudice, discrimination, and racism, which will empower them to think critically about the stereotypes to which they are exposed in culture" (Tatum, 2007, p. 20). Both White and students of color will need a set of tools that will prepare them for functioning in a diverse world. Tatum (2007) proposed an ABC approach to creating an inclusive learning environment. The concept is described as:

A - Affirming Identity: Refers to students’ need to “see themselves reflected in the environment around them, in the curriculum, among the faculty and staff, and in the faces of their classmates” (p. 21) in order to avoid feeling invisible or marginal. As a result, the student's success will not be undermined.

B - Building Community: Refers to the importance of creating a school community in which everyone has a sense of belonging to a community in which there are shared norms and values as well as a sense of common purpose that unites its members.

C - Cultivating Leadership: Refers to the role of education in preparing citizens for active participation in democracy, and the assumption that leadership must come from all parts of our community. Leadership in the twenty-first century requires the ability to interact effectively with people from backgrounds different from one's own - an ability that requires real-life experience (p. 21-22).

An effective school is one which employs all three of these aspects in its planning stage. These three dimensions are critical to the development of an effective learning environment in which students feel invested and engaged. How can this be done?

Affirming Identity: The establishment of cultural centers is a common approach to addressing the need to affirm marginalized identities on predominantly White campuses. These types of centers can provide specialized programming as well as a place for the students to retreat. However, critics argue that these types of centers can be seen as exclusive and do not promote integration.

Building Communities: Students need to sense that they belong to a larger, shared campus community. Cultural centers assist minority students with affirming their identities so that they feel comfortable participating in mainstream events. Cultural centers serve as a safe haven.

Cultivating Leadership: Leadership in the twenty-first century “requires the ability to think critically and communicate effectively” as well as demand the “ability to interact effectively with others” from different backgrounds. The “development of each of these abilities requires opportunities to practice” (i.e. student participation in face-to-face intergroup dialogues) (p. 115-117).

Conclusion

Monoculturalism encourages a normative cultural unity or cultural homogeneity. For example, if a country has accepted a large number of immigrants, there will be initiatives to get these individuals to assimilate to the practices of the dominant culture. Monoculturalism possesses negative attributes due to the philosophy encouraging ethnocentrism, absolutist thinking, naïve realism, lack of respect for other's opinions, and the use of derogatory terms to describe customs different from one's own. How do these viewpoints affect the field of education? Southern Nazarene University (n.d.) prepared a statement for ethnocentrism, but the arguments can be used for all three viewpoints. Monocultural thought can have a negative impact on one's ability to learn about different cultures and may hinder the education environment in which students participate.

The United States is moving toward a society that has no ethnic majority. "The demand for multiculturalism is strong in the contemporary world and is invoked in the making of social, cultural and political policies, especially in Western Europe and the United States" (Sen, 2006, par 1). Demographics suggest that the world is moving toward becoming a multi-ethnic and international culture (Visions, n.d.). Sen (2006) asserted that this should not be a surprise considering the fact that increased global contacts and interactions, especially extensive migrations, have positioned the diverse practices of different cultures in close proximity to one another.

"Effective recruiting and retaining ethnic and racial minority faculty members has been a major concern in higher education for the past decade" (Johnsrud & Sadao, 1998, p. 315). Rifkin (2003) claims that the number one reason cited for the slow growth of minority faculty representation is a small pool of potential minority candidates. Still, some scholars (Boice, 1993; Stein, 1994) have found that ethnic and racial minority group members experience severe marginalization on campuses. Many stated that their white colleagues believed that they were hired as a result of affirmative action and did not deserve the positions (Menges & Exum, 1983).

Terms & Concepts

Assimilation: The process whereby a minority group (usually through immigration) adopts the customs and attitudes of the dominant culture over time, and usually by relinquishing aspects of their original culture.

Cultural Conservatism: Occurs when a culture has a conservative perspective. The term cultural conservatism tends to be used interchangeably with social conservatism and is used in political debates. The American political system will use the term to refer to the "religious right."

Culture: Universal belief systems and value orientations that influence customs, norms, practices, and social institutions, including psychological processes and organizations of a given society.

Diversity: In education, the practice of inclusion and tolerance for many cultures and backgrounds within a curriculum, school or learning environment.

Ethnocentrism: This concept describes the tendency to look at the world from the perspective of one's own culture.

Monoculturalism: The belief in the necessary dominance of one species, one race, one economy and one religion.

Multiculturalism: The acceptance of differences and operating from a position of genuinely appreciating one's own cultural identity and that of others.

Naïve Realism: The view that when we perceive something, we have perceived it exactly as it is. There is a belief that one's perceptions of reality are not colored or mediated by anything else.

Bibliography

American Council on Education and American Association of University Professionals. (2000). Does diversity make a difference? Three research studies on diversity in college classrooms. Washington, DC: Authors.

Astin, H. (1997). Race and ethnicity in the American professoriate, 1995-96. Los Angeles: University of California, Los Angels (UCLA), Higher Education Research Institute.

Blömeke, S., & Kaiser, G. (2012). Homogeneity or heterogeneity? Profiles of opportunities to learn in primary teacher education and their relationship to cultural context and outcomes. Zdm, 44, 249-264. doi:10.1007/s11858-011-0378-6Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=76487331&site=ehost-live

Boice, R. (1993). New faculty involvement for women and minorities. Research in Higher Education, 34 , 291-333.

Carnicom, S. (2013). Predicting student success, ameliorating risk, and guarding against homogeneity in honors. Journal of the National Collegiate Honors Council, 14, 35-39. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=92011171&site=ehost-live

Chang, M., Witt, D., Jones, J., & Hakuta, K. (2000). Compelling interest: Examining the evidence on racial dynamics in higher education. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.

Ehrenreich, B. (1991). Teach diversity-with a smile. Time, 137 , 84-85. Retrieved November 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9104081358&site=ehost-live

Johnsrud, L., & Sadao, K. (1998). The common experience of "otherness": Ethnic and racial minority faculty. The Review of Higher Education, 21 , 315-342.

Journell, W. (2012). Ideological homogeneity, school leadership, and political intolerance in secondary education: A study of three high schools during the 2008 presidential election. Journal of School Leadership, 22, 569-599. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=82541154&site=ehost-live

Menges, R., & Exum, W. (1983). Barriers to the progress of women and minority faculty. Journal of Higher Education, 54 , 123-143.

Parsons, J. (2012). Conversational Pedagogies And the Gift of Diversity. Encounter, 25, 41-44. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87764733&site=ehost-live

Reyes, M., & Halcon, J. (1988). Racism in academia: The old wolf revisited. Harvard Educational Review, 58, 229-314.

Rifkin, T. (2003). Public community college faculty. Retrieved November 6, 2007, from http://www.aacc.nche.edu.

Robertson, P., & Frier, T. (1994). Recruitment and retention of minority faculty. New Directions for Community Colleges, 22 , 65-71.

Sawchuk, M., Taylor, N., Perry, J. (1997). Teaching for cultural fluency. The Center for Cultural Fluency: A Model Multicultural Resource Center. Celebrating cultural diversity in higher education series. Los Angeles, CA: Mount Saint Mary's College. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED412875).

Sen, A. (2006). Identity and violence: The illusion of destiny. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

Sen, A. (2006, February 26). The use and abuses of multiculturalism. The New Republic. Retrieved on November 6, 2007, from http://www.pierretristam.com/Bobst/library/wf-58.htm

Southern Nazarene University (n.d.). Why is ethnocentrism bad? Retrieved November 6, 2007, from http://home.snu.edu/~Hculbert/ethno.htm

Stein, W. (1994). The survival of American Indian faculty. Thought and Action: The national Education Association Higher Education Journal, 10, 101-114.

Visions, Inc. (n.d.). Multiculturalism. Retrieved November 6, 2007, from http://www.visions-inc.org/multi-c.htm.

Suggested Reading

Calloway-Thomas, C. & Garner, T. (2000). A confrontation with diversity: Communication and culture in the 21st century. Journal of the Association for Communication Administration, 29 , 145-154. Retrieved November 19, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18014823&site=ehost-live

Cannella, G.S. & Swadener, B.B. (2006). Contemporary public policy influencing children and families: "Compassionate" social provision or the regulation of "Others"? International Journal of Educational Policy, Research & Practice, 7 , 81-93. Retrieved November 19, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23597333&site=ehost-live

Ricento, T. & Wiley, T.G. (2002). Editors' introduction: Language, identity, and education and the challenges of monoculturalism and globalization. Journal of Language, Identity & Education, 1 , 1-4. Retrieved November 19, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=6762797&site=ehost-live