Oligarchy
Oligarchy refers to a form of governance where political power is concentrated in the hands of a small group of individuals or families, often characterized by their wealth and influence. The term originates from Greek, meaning "rule by a few," and has historical roots in ancient Greece, where wealthy landowners wielded significant power over the populace. Throughout history, many societies have developed oligarchic systems, particularly after periods of upheaval, where a select few individuals establish control, sometimes leading to autocratic rule or monarchies.
While oligarchy is often conflated with aristocracy, which denotes rule by the nobility, it does not require noble birth and can manifest through economic power and political manipulation. Oligarchies may create opportunities for democratic developments, as seen in the historical context of the Magna Carta, where barons compelled King John to share power, paving the way for constitutional governance.
Contemporary examples include Russia, where a small elite gained significant power post-Soviet Union, and critics of capitalism often highlight the influence of wealthy corporations in modern democracies. Despite the potential for challenges through electoral systems, the economic barriers often limit the ability of outsiders to disrupt entrenched oligarchic structures.
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Oligarchy
The term “oligarchy” has its origins in the Greek words for “rule by a few.” It is used to identify the condition in which political power is concentrated in the hands of a small number of individuals or families in a given society. In ancient Greece, oligarchs were usually individuals who possessed more land and greater wealth than the rest of the people and, as such, wielded a disproportionate amount of influence. In time, the rule of the oligarchs gave way to more democratic forms of government. In the fifth century BCE, Athens promoted more democratic, even if not entirely egalitarian, forms of government. Over the centuries, many other civilizations and societies would come to develop oligarchic systems of government, often following the same path as ancient Greece.
Brief History
Historically, oligarchy generally referred to small groups of very wealthy individuals who marginalized poorer nobles and common citizens from the centers of power. It is often confused with the term “aristocracy”, which in its original definition, refers to rule by a few chosen individuals selected for their virtue. Almost all forms of government, however, are controlled by a limited number of members of the community. The major difference between a representative democracy, for example, and an oligarchy is that, in a representative democracy, leading individuals or members of the elite run against each other in elections, and acquire power through winning public support. In an oligarchic system, on the other hand, there is relatively little opportunity for any outside player to enter the ruling ranks.
There is some overlap between oligarchies, autocracies, plutocracies, and aristocracies. Autocracy refers to the rule of one. Plutocracies are societies in which its wealthier members rule unimpeded. In aristocracies, rule is usually in the hands of members of the nobility. Noble birth, however, is not a necessarily a requirement for being a ruling member of an oligarchy.
In practice, oligarchies are often in the hands of a few powerful families. They may not operate publicly, but rather exercise power discreetly, by way of political manipulation and economic pressure on governing institutions. In the eyes of Aristotle, who wrote seminal tracts on oligarchies, the oligarchic structure was corrupt, leading to government by unworthy and incapable individuals.
Overview
Many early societies became natural oligarchies, as alliances developed between clans and tribes as a survival strategy. These often became caste systems, enforced by those born into privileged families. As societies grew more complex, oligarchies sometimes became autocratic governments, such as monarchies, if one particular dynasty gained a significant amount of power over the others and when an influential group of high-ranking individuals was around the seat of power, meant to advise and support the ruler. Many of the world’s monarchies emerged in this manner.
Some scholars point out that oligarchies can open doors to incipient forms of democracy by forcing the ruler to share power with others. In some cases, oligarchs may form a parliament or constitution, or some other form of governmental entity in order to prevent tyranny and protect their rights. One of the most famous examples of this is the chartering of the Magna Carta (1215), which took place when English barons joined forces to coerce King John to cede some of his powers. The document, which fractured the absolute power of the monarchy, guarantees a greater share of power to the nobles. This was the first step toward a constitutional monarchy, and the provision of more rights to a larger number of people. The Magna Carta also created a new oligarchy in Britain. Nevertheless, it was a foundation for democracy in the modern era, including in the revolutionary United States. It is important to note, however, that in the newly minted republic of the United States, oligarchic structures were at work when voting rights were extended solely to male property owners.
Contemporary Russia is considered an oligarchy by many. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a power vacuum emerged in which a small group of individuals who managed to amass great wealth in the chaos of the new economic system were able to acquire a large amount of political influence.
Critics of capitalism often argue that political power, even in the form of economic and cultural power, is held by a small capitalist consortium of corporations. (A communist society, however, can also become oligarchic, as when it is ruled by a small cadre of people with access to resources that nobody else may enjoy.) Today, however, governments are vast and complex, and individuals can use corporations and other means for political influence, obscuring an arguably oligarchic balance of power. In a modern representative democracy, an oligarchy can be challenged through the electoral system. But very few individuals have the economic resources required to take on establishment political machines.
Bibliography
Gelletly, LeeAnn. Oligarchy. Bromall: Mason Crest, 2013. Print.
Holmes, Geoffrey. The Age of Oligarchy: Pre-Industrial Britain, 1722–1773. London: Routledge, 1993. Print.
MacCleilan, George. The Oligarchy of Venice: An Essay. Toronto: U of Toronto, 2011. Print.
Mackay, Christopher. The Breakdown of the Roman Republic: From Oligarchy to Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2012. Print.
Moore, J. M., and Kurt Raaflaub. Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy. Palo Alto: U of California P, 2010. Print.
Shear, Julia L. Polis and Revolution: Responding to Oligarchy in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011. Print.
Tabachnik, David, and Toivu Kivukoski. On Oligarchy: Ancient Lessons for Global Politics. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 2013. Print
Wertenbaker, Thomas J. The Puritan Oligarchy: The Foundation of American Civilization. New York: Grosset, 1947. Print.
Winters, Jeffrey. Oligarchy. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2013. Print.