Pathos
Pathos is a critical rhetorical strategy identified by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, which appeals to the emotions of an audience rather than relying on logical reasoning. This technique is designed to evoke specific emotional reactions through the careful selection of words with strong connotations, aiming to connect with the audience on a deeper emotional level. While effective, appeals to pathos can sometimes be perceived as insincere, leading some audiences to question the speaker's credibility or the strength of their argument. For this reason, many persuasive communicators find that combining pathos with other rhetorical appeals, such as ethos (credibility) and logos (logic), enhances their effectiveness. By establishing trust or presenting logical evidence alongside emotional appeals, speakers can create a more compelling and balanced argument. Understanding pathos is essential for anyone looking to engage in persuasive communication, as it acknowledges the powerful influence emotions have on decision-making and belief formation. This approach highlights the nuanced nature of argumentation, where emotional resonance plays a significant role in persuasion.
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Pathos
Appeals to pathos are a rhetorical tactic first categorized by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. It is one of the three modes of persuasion classified by Aristotle, the other two being logos and ethos. Pathos refers to an appeal to the emotions of an audience. It does not engage the audience with logical facts. Instead, appeals to pathos specifically utilize words with positive or negative connotations, in an attempt to invoke a specific emotional reaction.
Some audiences believe that a powerful appeal to pathos is disingenuous. It may seem that the speaker is unable to prove their point with logic, and seeks to mask faults in their argument by winning people over emotionally. For this reason, appeals to pathos often see the strongest results when combined with appeals to logos or ethos.
Background
Aristotle was a philosopher born in northern Greece in 384 BCE. His parents were both educated. Aristotle's mother and father were regarded as skilled physicians. Although his parents died when he was still young, Aristotle spent his youth in Stagira, the town in which he was born. When he was seventeen, Aristotle moved to Athens, a large Greek city-state. Once there, he joined the academy of the Greek philosopher Plato. Aristotle studied under Plato until Plato's death in 347 BCE.
In 342 BCE, Aristotle was summoned by the king of Macedonia. The king demanded that Aristotle act as a personal tutor to his son, Alexander. Alexander would later take command of Macedonia's armies, conquering much of the known world and earning the title Alexander the Great.
In 335 BCE, Aristotle left Alexander and returned to Athens. He rented a former wrestling school, the Lyceum, and began an academy like his former teacher. Under Aristotle's direction, the Lyceum attracted students from across all of Greece. After leaving his school in 323 BCE, Aristotle moved north of Athens. He died in 322 BCE.
Aristotle is commonly regarded as one of the greatest Western philosophers of all time. His works have been read across the world, are commonly studied in schools, and have influenced countless scholars. Some of his most famous works, including Metaphysics and Nicomachean Ethics, focused on examining morality. Other writings by the popular philosopher focused on politics, religion, and rhetoric. Aristotle proved incredibly influential to numerous Western philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas and Albert Magnus. However, most of his scientific models and theories were disproven during the Renaissance and Reformation. He is best known for his works on ethics, morality, and rhetoric.
Overview
Aristotle's theories on rhetoric have remained influential in modern times. Rhetoric is the discipline of debating and arguing. Aristotle believed that there were correct and incorrect ways to argue, and that the skill of the individuals debating often played a greater role in an argument than the inherent validity of either stance.
Aristotle believed that individuals engaging in a debate could use numerous appeals to win others to their side. These appeals were nuanced, practiced tactics, and could be tailored to numerous subjects and situations. Aristotle believed that reading a situation, topic, and opponent, and then deciding which appeal would best further a point in a debate, was a skill that needed to be studied and practiced over time.
The three appeals specified by Aristotle in his studies of rhetoric are ethos, logos, and pathos. Each provides a different framework for an argument. Ethos utilizes the character of the individual making the argument. It capitalizes on a reputation, either pre-existing or earned during the debate, to establish the person making the argument as a trusted source. After establishing themselves as a trusted source, the individual making the argument provides their own testimony, or the testimony of someone else. The arguer may also utilize the arguments of experts.
When utilizing logos, the person making an argument uses logic to convince his or her opponent and audience of the argument's validity. An appeal to logos utilizes concrete facts, relatable examples, and authoritative resources. It guides the audience in deductive or inductive reasoning, drawing them toward conclusions favorable to the speaker's argument.
Pathos utilizes an emotional appeal to the audience. It utilizes deliberate word choices designed to invoke specific feelings in the audience. Writers and speakers utilizing pathos can accomplish this by choosing words with strong emotional connotations, instead of more neutral terms. For example, instead of using the word thin to describe an individual, the speaker could use the word scrawny to invoke a negative emotional reaction, or the word slender to invoke a positive emotional reaction.
Many rhetoricians argue that it is easier to sway the emotions of an audience or opponent than it is to provide a thoughtful, cohesive, logos-based argument. Even when presented with indisputable facts, there is no guarantee that an audience will reach the same conclusion as the speaker. However, most individuals are susceptible to a carefully crafted appeal to pathos.
Other rhetoricians, and some audiences, consider an appeal to pathos to be disingenuous. They interpret a powerful appeal to pathos as a weak argument, inferring that a strong appeal to pathos means that the speaker does not believe they can sway the audience with authenticity or facts. For this reason, a skilled rhetorician is advised to be cautious before utilizing a strong appeal to pathos. Often, appeals to pathos work best when paired with another appeal. Combining an appeal to pathos with an appeal to ethos can stop audience members from feeling manipulated. If the audience trusts the individual making the emotional appeal, they may be more likely to consider it genuine. Similarly, combining an appeal to pathos with an appeal to logos may make an audience feel that their emotional response is backed by logic, increasing the impact of the speaker's argument.
Bibliography
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