Rape culture

A definition of rape culture starts with a definition of rape. Rape is a form of violence that involves the forcible penetration of a person with a body part or another object without that person’s consent. Rape is about power, not sex, and it most commonly carried out by male perpetrators against female victims, although same-sex and female-perpetrated rapes also occur. Rape culture presents rape as an inevitable or even normal activity in society. Instead of viewing it as a crime, a culture of rape is one in which rape is a foregone conclusion, its perpetrators often excused, and its victims blamed. Activists suggest that rape culture can be found in many institutions that are historically male dominated, including universities, sports, prisons, militaries, and war. Some critics argue that entire cultures can be considered rape cultures.

Overview

The concept of rape culture developed as a result of the feminist movements in the latter half of the twentieth century. Feminists and other activists brought the prevalence of rape and its damaging influence into the public eye and sought justice for rape survivors. These movements brought about changes in legislation, services, and education about rape. Importantly, it was put forward that rape was far more common in American culture (and many other cultures) than widely believed. Activists also debunked other myths, such as that only men who are strangers to the victims commit rape, that victims secretly want to be raped, that men cannot help their sexual urges, and that victims frequently lie about having been raped. Rape culture came to mean the social environment in any culture or subculture in which rape is normalized to some degree due to broad attitudes on sexuality and gender.

In representing rape as normal, rape culture downplays the crime, trauma, and repercussions associated with the act. Rape is made to seem normal through channels such as language use, media representations, and social networks. These processes reinforce rape myths, promote sexualized violence, and dismiss rape itself. Even efforts to teach women to avoid rape can be seen as participating in rape culture, by putting the burden on women to protect themselves rather than on men to not commit rape.

While rape culture has always been considered to pose major threats to women, attention has also been directed to its effects on men, transgender people, racial and ethnic minorities, and other groups. In particular, the term "toxic masculinity" came into use to describe the state imposed on men within rape culture. However, the statistical fact that most rape is carried out against women by men means that rape culture remains primarily considered a feminist issue. Sociologists and other scholars have proposed various ways in which all members of a society can work to combat rape culture.

Elements of Rape Culture

Language is a powerful part of rape culture. Language use can raise questions about the terms rape, consent, and victim in attempts to undermine their validity and reinforce common myths about rape. Appropriation of the word rape, such as using it to refer to easily defeating obstacles unrelated to sex (for instance sports games or final exams), trivializes the violence of the crime. Drawing on the stranger-as-perpetrator myth, the term real rape questions whether acquaintance rape or date rape is "real" or not. Language use also perpetuates standards of appearance and sexuality for women through terms such as slut.

The media perpetuates rape culture through objectification and violent representations of women in advertising, television shows, films, and news. Advertising in particular often shows this objectification and violence. Many advertisements for designer products feature heavily sexualized women, contributing to the sexual objectification of women. Some directly depict women in restraints or in submissive positions to men, or even even suggest rape and violence. Other media also contributes to rape culture, whether generally by sexualizing and marginalizing women and girls, or more directly by undermining the truth about rape. For instance, television dramas, notably police procedurals, often feature plots that hinge on sexual violence against women and raise questions about "real rape" through depictions of the victims, the issue of consent, and the women’s overall stories. The news media often perpetuate these myths as well.

Rape culture is a social phenomenon, and social networks and social pressure can help foster it. Critics suggest that behavior ranging from telling sexually explicit jokes to ignoring sexual harassment can perpetuate rape culture. Other examples include victim blaming (such as blaming sexual assault on women's clothing choices) and trivializing sexual assault as normal male behavior. These social pressures can affect men and women, pushing them to conform to stereotypes, and can be perpetuated by both men and women against either sex. Similarly, social media plays a role in rape culture in many societies. Memes that promote elements of rape culture, such as "slut shaming," circulate widely online and can influence cyberbullying. Rape culture is self-reinforcing in that those who protest rape culture are often attacked both through the media and in person, becoming the target of rape jokes and other tactics intended to silence them.

While discussion of rape culture can focus on a culture as a whole, the issue is often seen as especially problematic in certain subcultures, where traditional male domination has often lasted to an even greater degree than in general society. According to activists, such enclaves include corporate leadership, armed forces, sports teams, the entertainment industry, and universities. For example, in 2014, the US Department of Education named more than fifty colleges being investigated for how they handle reports of rape and sexual assault. That same year, a US Department of Defense study found that reports of sexual assault in the military had increased sharply, but very few advanced to a trial. And while rape culture has been most studied and discussed it the United States, activists have also identified its prevalence around the world. This is exemplified by high-profile cases in India and Pakistan in which girls were raped and then hanged, triggering criticism of the prevalent "honor" culture prevalent in the region.

Countering Rape Culture

While rape culture is deeply engrained into many aspects of society, experts suggest that combating it begins at the individual level. Specific actions that advocates suggest everyone can take to avoid the damaging effects of rape culture include:

• Refusing to use language that can be seen as degrading to women or objectifies them
• Speaking up against those that do use such language
• Critically evaluating all media representations of gender roles and violence
• Avoiding stereotypes
• Supporting organizations committed to stopping sexual violence

It is important to take all accounts of rape seriously, as support is crucial to victims and the process of getting medical attention and seeking justice. While examples of false rape accusations do exist, and often get significant media coverage, experts suggest they are very rare. In contrast, many rapes are never reported.

Sexual partners should always communicate clearly, and never assume consent, especially if the other person is intoxicated. Only a clear "yes" can be considered consent. Even in nonsexual situations, one should always be aware of other people's physical space and emotional status. Overcoming rape culture is a strong step toward reducing instances of rape.

Social activist movements have also worked to raise awareness of rape culture and counter its influence. Notably, the #MeToo movement began as a way for survivors of sexual misconduct to show solidarity with each other on social media, and gained widespread attention in the late 2010s with high-profile accusations against prominent figures. Many observers praised the movement and its calls for change, and noted some progress in changing the discourse around rape and other forms of sexual assault. However, there was also backlash, with some critics suggesting #MeToo and similar movements risked chilling normal sexual expression and free speech.

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