Related Fields: Criminology

Criminology is the scientific study of crime, focusing on its individual and societal dimensions. It examines various forms of crime, including personal and property crimes, white-collar crime, organized crime, and cybercrime. Researchers in criminology analyze the causes of crime through different perspectives, such as sociology, psychology, and political science, each offering unique insights into how crime is influenced by social structures, individual characteristics, and legal frameworks.

The study also addresses the phenomenon of recidivism, exploring factors that affect an individual’s ability to reintegrate into society after incarceration. Recidivism rates are a critical measure of the effectiveness of rehabilitation efforts. Factors influencing crime and recidivism include socioeconomic status, community support, and individual backgrounds.

Sociological theories, such as functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory, provide various lenses through which crime can be understood, highlighting the complex relationships between social norms, individual behavior, and systemic inequalities. Overall, criminology aims to inform policies and practices that can reduce crime and support successful reintegration into society, while acknowledging the multifaceted nature of crime and its impact on diverse communities.

Published in: 2023

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Subject Terms

Related Fields: Criminology

Abstract

Criminology is the scientific study of crime as an individual and social phenomenon. Sociologists are interested in crime for many reasons including that it reveals information about the norms of the society in which it occurs; is closely related in many cases to other social factors including poverty, gender, and unemployment; and is caused by a complex interaction of underlying causes. In addition to crimes against persons and property, there are many other types of crime, including white-collar crime and cybercrime. One area of research that is of interest to sociologists involves efforts to determine ways to reduce recidivism rates, or the frequency with which delinquent behavior or criminal activity recurs. Successful reentry and reintegration into society after incarceration occurs in stages, and support is needed for each stage. The literature suggests that this will require consideration of multiple underlying factors, including individual characteristics, family history and dynamics, community support, and state policy.

Overview

One way or another, crime affects all aspects of society. On one level, crime is of interest to those in the law enforcement and legal professions who help enforce the norms of society. On another level, however, crime is of interest to social scientists who are interested in how crime affects society. In addition to the type of violent crime that most people tend to think of when thinking about crime, there are other types of crime, including white-collar crime (e.g., embezzlement), victimless crime (e.g., gambling), cybercrime (e.g., identity theft), organized crime, and green crime. The scientific study of any type of crime as an individual and social phenomenon from a social science perspective is referred to as criminology. Criminology includes the insights from various social scientists. From the sociological perspective, crime is analyzed in terms of societal causes and effects. From a psychological perspective, crime is analyzed in terms of personality types and personal characteristics. From a political science perspective, crime is viewed through the lens of the law, as the cause and remedy for the problem.

Sociological Perspectives. As in other areas of interest to sociologists, there are different sociological perspectives on the causes and nature of crime. As shown in Table 1, the functionalist perspective attempts to explain the nature of social order and the relationship between the various parts (structures) in society and their contribution to the stability of the society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole. When applied to the understanding of crime and criminal behavior, functionalists tend to explain criminal phenomena by positing that crime helps to clarify the norms—standards or patterns of behavior that are accepted as normal within the culture—by articulating what is considered unacceptable behavior. In fact, many functionalists believe that a certain level of crime is necessary for the stability of society. Symbolic interactionists, however, assume that one's self-concept is created through the interpretation of the symbolic gestures, words, actions, and appearances of others as observed during social interactions. Symbolic interactionists tend to be particularly interested in how individuals become criminals and how being labeled as a criminal tends to reinforce criminal behavior and increase the probability that the individual will continue to perform criminal acts (whether they are guilty or not). Conflict theorists, however, tend to look at crime from the point of view of the disadvantaged lower social classes. Conflict theorists assume that social behavior is best explained and understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups. Therefore, from a conflict perspective, it is often noted that individuals from the lower classes tend to be much more likely to turn to crime than individuals from the upper classes. As a result, conflict theorists see the phenomenon of crime as stemming from social conditions rather than personality traits or types.

Criminal Activity: Personal & Property Crime. As mentioned above, there are a number of different categories of criminal activity, all of which are of interest to sociologists. The type of crime that tends to get the most notice is the category of personal and property crime. This category comprises both violent and nonviolent crimes directed at individuals (e.g., robbery, aggravated assault, rape, murder). Included in this category are hate crimes, or assaults and malicious acts perpetrated against individuals because they are members of a particular group (e.g., racial or ethnic groups, gays and lesbians, people with disabilities). Property crimes include the theft or destruction of property without a concomitant threat of bodily harm (e.g., burglary, larceny, theft, arson). A third type of personal and property crime is victimless crime. This subcategory of crime comprises illegal activities in which consenting adults exchange desired but illegal goods or services (e.g., gambling, prostitution, illegal drug use). Some people advocate for the decriminalization of victimless crimes because they believe that such crimes only hurt the person perpetrating them. However, many observers argue that the term "victimless" is inappropriate since these crimes can lead to other types of crime or injury to other people (e.g., driving under the influence, sexually transmitted diseases).

Youth Gang Activities. Another classification of crime that is of great interest to sociologists is crime related to youth gang activities. In many cases, youths must commit a crime to be initiated into a gang (Descormiers & Corrado, 2016). Not only do members of youth gangs often participate in criminal activities, they often become career criminals or engage in activities of organized crime when they are adults. The criminal activities committed by youth gangs are not necessarily any less serious than those committed by adults. Crimes such as burglaries, robberies, drug dealing, and other offenses are also committed by adults. Crime committed by youths, however, is typically referred to as delinquency to distinguish it from crime committed by adults. Delinquency is typically treated differently than crime committed by adults. Juvenile offenders are often charged with vague crimes (e.g., vagrancy, truancy, incorrigibility) and treated with more leniency as a way to divert them from becoming career criminals. Unfortunately, in many cases this approach has only served to increase the differential treatment received by juvenile offenders depending on their class, race, ethnicity, or gender. For example, middle-class juveniles are often released into the custody of their parents, while lower-class juveniles tend to be sent to detention facilities. Similarly, girls convicted of sexual promiscuity are often sent to reform school, while boys convicted of the same crime often have their cases dismissed.

White-Collar Crime. Not all crimes are so obvious, however. White-collar crime (also referred to as elite crime) is crime that is perpetrated by persons of higher social status within the context of their jobs (e.g., embezzlement, insider trading). Although white-collar crime often generates little concern with the public, in actuality, it costs society much more than the personal and property crimes discussed above. Similarly, the executives of organizations may be guilty of crimes such as fraud or tax evasion or even, as asserted by some observers, of harming society by not letting customers know about the potential negative impact of their products (e.g., the tobacco industry).

Compared with personal and property crimes perpetrated by members of lower classes, white-collar crime has a much lower investigation and prosecution rates. Closely related to white-collar crime is cybercrime. This category comprises criminal acts dealing with computers and networks or a traditional crime conducted over the Internet (e.g., fraud, identity theft, hacking, and unauthorized acquisition of data and information). Cyber criminals may gain unauthorized entry of a criminal into the company's computer system for the purpose of stealing data, information, or money. Cyber criminals may also illegally gain access to a computer system to intentionally damage the system's data. This type of cybercrime can not only cost an organization to recover the data but also result in a loss of goodwill from customers due to errors resulting from the data loss. However, stealing money or capturing data and information are not the only purposes of cybercrime. According to some studies, cybercrime has grown simultaneously with the development of information and communication technologies (Li, 2017).

Distribution & Correlation of Arrests. One of the noteworthy characteristics of many crime statistics is the fact that there is typically an uneven distribution of arrests by race, class, and gender. For example, certain groups are more likely to commit crimes than others. These groups are often correlated with other characteristics such as race, class, and gender. From a sociological perspective, the question is one of how best to interpret such findings. There has been a great deal of debate over the years as to whether these differential findings can best be explained by real underlying differences in individual differences between people in different socioeconomic strata or if the differences actually are a result of differential treatment by the criminal justice system. The literature suggests that the statistics can best be explained by a combination of these factors.

Research has found a strong positive correlation between social class and crime, with those in lower socioeconomic strata being more likely to be arrested than others. Although this may mean that individuals in the lower classes are more prone to commit crimes than are individuals from upper classes, this is not a straightforward relationship. In interpreting correlative statistics, it is important to remember that correlation does not prove causation. In other words, just because many of the criminal arrests are of people of lower socioeconomic status, one cannot say that being in such a position makes an individual more likely to commit a crime. It only means that there is an association between the two factors. Research has found a strong relationship among unemployment, poverty, and crime (Andersen & Taylor, 2008). This is usually interpreted to mean that people from the lower social classes tend to be economically deprived and see crime as their only option for survival. In addition, law enforcement activities tend to be more heavily concentrated in lower socioeconomic areas. On the one hand, this typically stems from the fact that there tends to be more crime in these areas. On the other hand, there are typically more arrests where there are higher concentrations of law enforcement activities because crime is more likely to be found. Further, not all crime is committed by those in lower social strata. White-collar crime, for example, is by definition committed by those in higher social strata and actually costs society more than street crime committed by the lower classes. However, white-collar crime is much less likely to be detected and successfully prosecuted.

It is not only social class that has been found to be positively correlated with crime, however. There is also a significant positive correlation between race and crime. For example, although racial minorities comprise one-quarter of the population of the United States, over one-third of the property crimes and almost one-half of the violent crimes committed in this country appear to be committed by minorities (Andersen & Taylor, 2008). Similarly, statistics show that there is a correlation between gender and crime: specifically, women are much less likely to commit a crime than are men. This relationship is so strong that until the late twentieth century (with the increasing emphasis of the feminist perspective in sociology) most sociological research on crime focused almost exclusively on men. This may be because women have been socialized in such a way that they are less likely to engage in risky behavior than are men or because the types of crimes committed by women tend to be extensions of their gender roles (e.g., shoplifting, credit card fraud). However, women's participation in criminal activities has appeared to be on the rise. Some social theorists believe that this increase is due to the fact that with the advances brought by the women's movement, modern women have more opportunities to commit crime (e.g., embezzlement, fraud). In addition, the incidence of violent crime committed by women has also appeared to be on the rise, a fact that may be related to evolving gender roles. However, like crimes committed by men, crimes committed by women are correlated with socioeconomic status.

Applications

Although the study of crime can give social scientists a great deal of information about the way that a society works and what a society values, from the point of view of the society itself, the greater importance is on the prevention of individuals from either committing crime in the first place or from committing other crimes after the first one. Recidivism rate is the frequency with which delinquent behavior or criminal activity recurs. The recidivism rate is often used as a measure of effectiveness of interventions or programs to reduce the recurrence of criminal behavior. Recidivism rates in the United States are climbing. For example, in 2022, 610,000 individuals were released from state and federal prisons, approximately four times the number that were released in 1975. It has also been estimated that between 50 and 70 percent of those released will be arrested again within three years and half of those individuals will go back to prison (Visher & Travis, 2003).

As with the causes of criminal behavior in the first place, the causes of recidivism are multiple and complex. Visher and Travis propose a multi-leveled model for conceptualizing the transition from prison to the community (Figure 1). The model is based on the observation that successful reintegration into the community is in great part a dynamic, social process. The literature suggests that a number of dimensions have been shown to affect the success of an inmate's reentry and reintegration into the community after release from prison. These include:

The individual's pre-prison circumstances (e.g., demographic profile, job skills and history, criminal history, substance abuse, family situation);
The individual's experiences in prison (e.g., length of stay, participation in treatment programs, contact with friends and family during incarceration);
Immediate post-prison experiences (e.g., initial housing needs, family support, transition assistance); and
Post-release integration experiences (e.g., influence of peers, social service support, supervision by criminal justice system personnel).

The various factors in these dimensions interact with each other to help or hinder the reentry and reintegration processes. For example, although a person may have the skills necessary to be successful in the workplace after release from prison, if the individual does not have sufficient support from family and friends, appropriate supervision from trained criminal justice system personnel, and positive post-release job experiences, the chances of recidivism are increased. Similarly, successful reentry and reintegration are not binary, but a multistage process. Research has found that a number of factors are predictive of recidivism (e.g., substance abuse history, job skills and history, mental and physical health). Without the appropriate background, it is less likely that an individual will be able to successfully reintegrate into society following release from prison. The second stage of the reentry process comprises the individual's experiences in prison itself. In particular, the length of incarceration, involvement in various correctional programs, and the psychological consequences of the prison experience have all been shown to affect the ability to successfully reintegrate into society after release. Immediately after release, it is also important that the individual is able to reestablish a normal life as quickly as possible (e.g., finding a place to live, connecting or reconnecting with other people who will be a positive influence). Successful integration also depends on various other factors including the choices that the individual makes after release and how they are treated by others.

Conclusion

From a purely social science point of view, the study of crime can give one many insights into the nature and values of a society. Although statistics frequently show that there is a positive correlation between crime and lower socioeconomic status, the relationship is a complex one and does not indicate cause and effect. Factors such as poverty and unemployment have repeatedly been shown to be important factors in this equation. These factors, too, are complex, and may include other considerations such as education, culture, and socialization. Much more research is needed before we can understand these complex interactions well. However, crimes against people and property are not the only type of crime that can be committed in a society. White-collar crime costs society more in terms of monetary loss than crimes against people and property committed by individuals from lower socioeconomic strata. Yet, these crimes are often not investigated or prosecuted. This relationship, too, has much to say about society and its norms and is worthy of a great deal more investigation. In addition, more research is needed to determine what types of programs and incentives can help rehabilitate criminals so that they can once again be productive members of society or stop individuals from starting a career in crime in the first place.

Terms & Concepts

Class: A group of people or stratum within society that share a similar level of wealth and income and that have access to the same resources, power, and perceived social worth. Social class is the stratum of the group within society.

Conflict Perspective: An approach to analyzing social behavior that is based on the assumption that social behavior is best explained and understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.

Correlation: The degree to which two events or variables are consistently related. Correlation may be positive (i.e., as the value of one variable increases the value of the other variable increases), negative (i.e., as the value of one variable increases the value of the other variable decreases), or zero (i.e., the values of the two variables are unrelated). Correlation does not imply causation.

Crime: Any deviant behavior that violates a criminal law. Behavior can deviate from societal norms without being criminal.

Criminology: The scientific study of crime as an individual and social phenomenon.

Cybercrime: A criminal act dealing with computers and networks or a traditional crime conducted over the Internet. Cybercrimes include fraud, identity theft, hacking, and unauthorized acquisition of data and information.

Functionalism: A theoretical framework used in sociology that attempts to explain the nature of social order and the relationship between the various parts (structures) in society and their contribution to the stability of the society by examining the functionality of each to determine how it contributes to the stability of society as a whole. Also referred to as structural functionalism.

Norms: Standards or patterns of behavior that are accepted as normal within the culture.

Race: A social construct that is used to define a subgroup of the human population that has common physical characteristics, ancestry, or language. Racial groups are often neither objectively defined nor homogenous, and racial categories may differ from culture to culture.

Recidivism Rate: The frequency with which delinquent behavior or criminal activity recurs. The recidivism rate is often used as a measure of effectiveness of interventions or programs to reduce the recurrence of criminal behavior.

Reinforcement: An act, process, circumstance, or condition that increases the probability of a person repeating a response.

Socialization: The process by which individuals learn to differentiate between what the society regards as acceptable versus unacceptable behavior and act in a manner that is appropriate for the needs of society.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.

Symbolic Interactionism: A theory that assumes that one's self-concept is created through the interpretation of the symbolic gestures, words, actions, and appearances of others as observed during social interactions.

Bibliography

Andersen, M. L. & Taylor, H. F. (2008). Sociology: Understanding a diverse society (4th ed.). Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Criger, D. W. (2011). Critical perspectives on crime and social harm: Toward a criminology of human rights. Sociology Compass, 5(11), 984-994. Retrieved November 5, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=66917485&site=ehost-live

Descormiers, K. & Corrado, R. R. (2016). The right to belong: individual motives and young gang initiation rites. Deviant Behavior, 37(11). Retrieved May 30, 2023, from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=118447964&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Li, J. X. (2017). Cyber and legal countermeasures: a historical analysis. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 12(2). Retrieved May 30, 2023, from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=126901320&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Schaefer, R. T. (2022). Sociology: A brief introduction (14th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Schanz, Y. (2013). Perceptions of undergraduate students on criminology and Criminal Justice Education in the United States: An Empirical Analysis. International Journal Of Criminal Justice Sciences, 8(2), 105-119. Retrieved November 5, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=91095592&site=ehost-live

Spencer, D. (2011). Cultural criminology: An invitation... to what? Critical Criminology, 19(3), 197-212. Retrieved November 5, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=63899047&site=ehost-live

Visher, C. A. & Travis, J. (2003). Transitions form prison to community: Understanding individual pathways. Annual Review of Sociology, 28, 89-113. Retrieved October 6, 2008, from EBSCO online database International Bibliography of the Social Sciences http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ioh&AN=2787511&site=ehost-live

Related Fields: Criminology

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Subject Terms

Related Fields: Criminology

Abstract

Overview

Applications

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

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