Rhodes Scholarship

Cecil Rhodes made his fortune in the diamond and gold mines of South Africa, and as part of his bequest used the wealth he gained to fund one of the world's most famous scholarship programs (Rotberg, 1988). Rhodes Scholarships fund study for one to three years at the University of Oxford for select students from various regions around the globe, including the United States (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998; The Rhodes Trust, 2007). The first African American Rhodes Scholar, Alain LeRoy Locke, was selected in 1907 but there were to be no African American Rhodes Scholars again for over fifty years (Rocca, 2003). Additionally, women were not eligible to be considered for Rhodes Scholarships until the Rhodes Class of 1977 (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Researchers have generally found that winning a Rhodes Scholarship may open doors but is not necessarily a ticket to success (Arnold, 2002; Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998).

Keywords Annex; Autonomous; Bequest; Cambridge; Equal Opportunities; Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU); Imperialist; Oxford; Posterity; Rhodes, Cecil; Rhodes Scholars/Scholarship; Social Justice

Overview

Posthumously both praised and despised, Cecil Rhodes made his fortune in Africa from diamonds and gold and along the way accumulated substantial political power as well that catapulted him into the world eye (Rotberg, 1988). His wealth helped fund his invasions of territories in Africa that subsequently were known as Northern and Southern Rhodesia (present day Zambia and Zimbabwe; Rotberg, 1988). The riches that Cecil Rhodes acquired over the course of his lifetime also gave rise to arguably the most esteemed and well-recognized scholarship program in the world.

Rhodes earned an undergraduate degree from Oxford in 1881 (Rotberg, 1988). Considered by some to be rivaled only by the University of Cambridge in world prestige and reputation, Oxford University saw its first college founded in 1249 (The Rhodes Trust, 2007). Today, Oxford is home to thirty-nine autonomous colleges (The Rhodes Trust, 2007). Schaeper and Schaeper (1998) offered that one of the reasons Rhodes decided to study at Oxford was that "he wanted to be accepted as a gentleman and have social connections with the right sort of people" (p. 2). Rotberg (1988) stressed that evidence shows that Rhodes hardly led a studious and academic life while at Oxford. In fact, because Rhodes alternated his study at Oxford with trips back to supervise his mining operations in South Africa, it took him eight years to complete a degree that normally could be earned in three (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Yet, Oxford came to have great meaning for Rhodes because it represented time in which he grew personally and "constructed a plan of life" (Rotberg, 1988, p. 84).

Despite his own less than studious history with Oxford, Rhodes also came to revere the institution for "its passion for learning" (Rotberg, 1988, p. 664). As part of his plans to unite the English-speaking colonies at that time and to leave behind something to be remembered by for posterity's sake, in 1899 as part of his eighth will Rhodes created the scholarship program bearing his name that was to fund study at Oxford for future leaders (Rotberg, 1988). His ideas for the Rhodes Scholarship had actually started to take shape in his previous wills (Rotberg, 1988). The creation of what has become known as the Rhodes Trust was dictated by Cecil Rhodes in order to carry out the indications of his will (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Initially, scholarships were to be awarded without regard for race or religion yet only to men because Rhodes believed that women were not fit to be considered as scholars (Rotberg, 1988). Scholarships for study at Oxford would be awarded to young colonials from Rhodesia, South Africa, Australia, Canada, Jamaica, Bermuda, and the United States; scholarships for Germans were added by way of an amendment to Rhodes' will in 1901 because of Rhodes' admiration for Kaiser Wilhelm and Wilhelm's action to make instruction in English compulsory in German schools (Rotberg, 1988). Qualifications for the scholarships were to go beyond scholastic aptitude to also include leadership potential, moral integrity, and athletic prowess (Rotberg, 1988).

According to Rotberg, (1988) Rhodes Scholarships to the University of Oxford became the "main and overarching bequest" of Cecil Rhodes (p. 678). Schaeper and Schaeper (1998) described the type of experience that the Rhodes Scholarship allows students to have as one of "introspective respite" (p. 322). Rhodes Scholars are encouraged to mix academics with social life, to travel, and to engage in readings and discussion that do not necessarily relate to their planned career path (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998).

Applications

The Selection of Scholars

The first Rhodes Scholars, six South Africans and five Germans, arrived at Oxford in the fall of 1903 (Wylie, 1955a). Only South Africa and Germany were represented among the first scholars because officials in these regions managed well enough to make recommendations for scholars to the Rhodes Trustees despite a general lack at the time of "machinery anywhere for electing Rhodes Scholars" (Wylie, 1955a, p. 77). In contrast, the following year seventy-two Rhodes Scholars came into residence at Oxford (Wylie, 1955a). In addition to early problems with the process of election for Rhodes Scholars, at the beginning competition for the awards was also stymied by the necessity of passing a qualifying examination that included competencies in the subjects of Latin and Greek, which at that time were being given less and less attention (Wylie, 1955c). The requirement was finally dropped in 1918 (Wylie, 1955c).

Regarding Rhodes Scholars from the United States, selection occurs today via a decentralized process by regional selection committees (The Rhodes Trust, 2007). The selection process involves first an endorsement from a student's academic institution followed by subsequent screenings at the state and regional level (Rocca, 2003). Altogether, thirty-two American Rhodes Scholars are selected annually (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998; The Rhodes Trust, 2007). Applicants must provide academic transcripts, a personal essay, and letters of recommendation; those deemed most promising are then called for a personal interview with the relevant selection committee (The Rhodes Trust, 2007). According to the Rhodes Trust (2007), "Selection committees are charged to seek excellence in qualities of mind and in qualities of person which, in combination, offer the promise of effective service to the world in the decades ahead" (p. 1). Additionally, the desire for scholars to engage in 'protection of the weak' has been interpreted to mean that Rhodes Scholars should work toward social justice (Rocca, 2003).

Candidates for the American Rhodes Scholarships can choose to compete either in their home states or in the state in which their academic institutions are located (Rocca, 2003). There has been some controversy over this aspect of the process as some say that candidates from less-populous states are given an advantage (Rocca, 2003). However, a change was made to take effect with the Rhodes Class of 1997 in order to curb the perceived advantage that students applying from less populous states enjoy (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Specifically, the eight districts from which American Rhodes applicants apply were reconfigured so that they are closer in total population (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998).

Rhodes Scholars generally are elected to attend the University of Oxford for two years but may attend for as little as one year or for as many as three years depending upon the course of study pursued (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998; The Rhodes Trust, 2007). The Rhodes Trust covers all educational and travel costs of scholarship winners and also provides a maintenance allowance or stipend (The Rhodes Trust, 2007). Overall, each year about 200 Rhodes Scholars study at Oxford (The Rhodes Trust, 2007). While America currently has the largest contingent of Rhodes Scholars each year, the group is joined by students from numerous other regions including Australia, Bermuda, Canada, the Commonwealth Caribbean, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Jamaica, Kenya, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe (The Rhodes Trust, 2007).

Black Rhodes Scholars

Although a clause in Cecil Rhodes' will indicated that neither race nor religion should be a factor in decisions about Rhodes Scholarships, it is generally believed that the selection of black Rhodes Scholars goes against the intentions Rhodes had for the program (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). This is because Rhodes sometimes used "race" to mean "culture" or "nation" and mainly added the clause to the will to ensure that Dutch, British, American, and German "races" could participate in the program (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Regardless, the Rhodes Trust decided to follow the letter rather than the spirit of the will (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Alain LeRoy Locke attended Harvard University and was the first African American Rhodes Scholar upon his acceptance to the program in 1907 (Slater, 1993/1994). Locke went on to become a highly influential writer, philosopher, educator, and patron of the arts. Some scholars have made particular note of Locke’s influence on the personal philosophy and rhetorical style of U.S. President Barack Obama (Danisch, 2012).

Wylie (1955b) noted that the election of the first African American Rhodes Scholar in 1907 produced shock and offence among Rhodes Scholars at Oxford from the southern United States. Some scholars even indicated that they would resign their scholarships, though none ultimately did so (Wylie, 1955b). The Rhodes Trustees decision was that the committee responsible for the election of Locke was well within its rights - in accordance with the conditions of Rhodes' will - and that the Trustees would not interfere (Wylie, 1955b). While the first African American Rhodes Scholar in the United States was selected in 1907, another award to a black student from the United States was not made again for over fifty years until 1963 (Rocca, 2003). Additionally, it took almost ninety more years for the first African American student from a historically black college and university (HBCU) to win a Rhodes Scholarship. Nima Warfield attended an HBCU and was awarded the scholarship in 1994 ("More than Ninety Years," 2003).

Two African American students, J. Stanley Sanders and John Edgar Wideman, won places as Rhodes Scholars for the class of 1963 (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). As noted, they were the first African American Rhodes Scholars in over fifty years (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). According to Schaeper and Schaeper (1998), early Rhodes Scholars described the issue of admission of black students as scholars as "simply nonexistent before the 1960s" (p. 223). It is believed that relatively few black students applied to the Rhodes program before this time because it was viewed as a 'white man's club' (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998, p. 223). Additionally, relatively few African American students attended the prestigious universities (e.g., Harvard, Yale, Princeton) from which many American Rhodes Scholars originated (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Since about the 1970s, however, the percentage of African Americans in each Rhodes Scholar class has come to roughly be on par with the percentage of blacks in America (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Starting in the 1970s students belonging to other minority groups (e.g., first- or second-generation immigrants, Hispanics, Native Americans) began to attain greater representation among Rhodes Scholars as well (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998).

Female Rhodes Scholars

Due to the conditions outlined in Cecil Rhodes' will, women were not eligible to win a Rhodes Scholarship until 1976 (Stimpson, 1993). Thus, while some progress began to made on the issue of black Rhodes Scholars during the 1960s, women as Rhodes Scholars remained a non-issue (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Not only was it outlawed per the conditions of Cecil Rhodes' will, but, similar to the scarcity of African American students among their ranks, relatively few of the prestigious universities from which many American Rhodes Scholars came were co-educational (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Even if the will had allowed women to be selected as Rhodes Scholars, they would have only been allowed to study at one of Oxford's five women's colleges until 1974 when some of Oxford's previously all-male undergraduate colleges also began to accept women (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). By 1987 all of Oxford's colleges accepted women as students (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). The admission of women as Rhodes Scholars, however, was ultimately made possible by the passage of the Equal Opportunities Bill by the British Parliament in 1975 (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Upon urging from American women and the U.S. government, a rider was attached to the bill that allowed universities and charities to petition to break restrictions in their charters that discriminated against women (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Due to the rider, the Rhodes Trust won the ability to break the conditions of Rhodes' will and, as a result, thirteen American women won places as Rhodes Scholars in the class of 1977 (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Fifteen years later, in 1992, women won half of the Rhodes Scholarships that were awarded (Stimpson, 1993). Another victory for female Rhodes Scholars occurred in 1978. Karen Stevenson, who was a member of the Rhodes class of 1978, was the first black woman to win a Rhodes Scholarship (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998).

Age Restrictions

Although the Rhodes Trust no longer discriminates on the basis of gender, marital status, sexual orientation, race, ethnic origin, color, religion, social background, caste, or disability, eligibility requirements continue to require that applicants from the United States be under the age of twenty-four. According to Reiss, the practical effect of this cutoff is the elimination of eligibility for most veterans of the U.S. Armed Services who have served their country in recent conflicts. While each of the nominating countries or geographic entities sets its own restrictions (subject to approval by the Rhodes Trust), and the cutoff ages range from twenty-four to twenty-seven around the globe, the Trust has declined to allow changes in the age requirement for American applicants (Reiss, 2011).

Viewpoints

Motivations

Schaeper and Schaeper (1998) stated that controversy exists over why Rhodes decided to leave a bequest for the scholarships. Specifically, questions have arisen as to what roles altruism and personal gain played in the scholarship idea. Cecil Rhodes, like many other Europeans and Americans during his time, was a steadfast imperialist (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). According to Schaeper and Schaeper (1998), Rhodes "once bragged that he would annex the planets if he could" (p. 7). His desire to change the world by expanding the British Empire largely shaped his earlier wills, but in his later years Rhodes' desire shifted to reflect a belief that "education was the best means for changing and improving the world" (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998, p. 14).

However, while no longer sticking to a rigid imperial framework, Rhodes still did desire to unite English-speaking peoples (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). For instance, Schaeper and Schaeper (1998) explained that Rhodes chose Oxford for the scholars not just because it was his alma mater but also because of its prominence among universities in English-speaking countries. Explaining his altruistic motives the authors noted, "Rhodes wanted future leaders from around the world to mix with future British leaders, thereby ensuring a united effort for peace and prosperity" (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998, p. 16). Alternatively, the authors pointed to other research that indicates that Rhodes established the scholarships mainly for personal fame because he wanted to leave a lasting legacy behind by which to be remembered. In the end, Schaeper and Schaeper (1998) proposed that, "Very probably, as with so much else in his life, he did it for a combination of altruistic and selfish reasons" (p. 17). In his biography of Cecil Rhodes, Rotberg (1988) likewise offered, "The scholarships that carry [Rhodes'] name perpetuate the romantic and heroic side of his nature, and yet are based on an entrepreneurial assertiveness that was just as central to his complex personality" (p. 11).

The Legacy

By 2003, a select group of only about 3,000 Americans in the United States had won Rhodes Scholarships ("Howard Celebrates," 2003). Former president Bill Clinton is among this group ("Howard Celebrates," 2003). There have been some changes in the program over the years. Demonstrated ability in outdoor sports is no longer a qualification yet exhibition of physical vigor is still a requirement (Rocca, 2003). Students are also no longer disqualified if they are married; Cecil Rhodes was of the opinion that matrimonial duties and children would be too distracting for a scholar (Rocca, 2003).

Some researchers have pondered the issue of what effect a Rhodes Scholarship has on the career paths of the select individuals who win one. Slater (1993/1994) offered, "There can be little doubt that a Rhodes Scholarship puts one on the ladder of success. The contacts one makes with other leaders of tomorrow from around the globe are invaluable" (p. 107). Likewise, Arnold (2002) stated, "Just the fact of receiving a Rhodes scholarship indicates exceptional early achievement and positions the recipient for a top career" (p. 7). Alternatively, in their research, Schaeper and Schaeper (1998) found that winning a Rhodes Scholarship is not necessarily a ticket to success. They stressed that a Rhodes Scholarship may open doors but does not necessarily guarantee someone a sought-after job or position (Schaeper & Schaeper, 1998). Similarly, while noting the favorable edge Rhodes Scholars gain, Arnold (2002) indicated that her research showed that "undergraduate origins are the strongest predictors of adult professional prominence" (Arnold, 2002, p. 7). For instance, Arnold (2002) determined that despite having the same SAT scores, Rhodes Scholars who attended Harvard, Princeton, or Yale as undergraduates were more likely to achieve career prominence than those who attended other institutions.

The class of Rhodes Scholars for 2014 includes eighty-three students from Australia, Bermuda, Canada, Germany, Hong Kong, India, Jamaica and Commonwealth Caribbean, Kenya, New Zealand, Pakistan, Southern Africa (including South Africa, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, and Swaziland), United States, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Inspiration

Rhodes' vision of shaping an elite group of students into world leaders has also served to fuel the development of similar scholarship programs, such as the Marshall and Fulbright programs (Rocca, 2003). Additionally, similar to the Rhodes, the Ford Foundation International Fellowship Program and the Gates Cambridge Scholarship Program are two of the wealthiest, most selective scholarship programs that are international in scope (Rocca, 2003). The Gates Cambridge Scholars program was established in 2000 with a $210 million trust from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (Cohen, 2000). The program was to fund annually at least 225 students from any country outside of the United Kingdom to study at Cambridge for either a second bachelor's degree or a graduate degree (Cohen, 2000). Academic ability and leadership potential were to be the main criteria for selection as a Gates Cambridge Scholar (Cohen, 2000). The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has also established the Gates Millennium Scholars Program which provides up to 10 years of renewable grant aid that covers the full cost of attendance for 1,000, high-achieving, low-income students of color each year to earn undergraduate and graduate degrees at their college of choice (Davis, Nagle, Richards, & Awokoya, 2013).

Terms & Concepts

Annex: the uniting of a new territory with an existing one (Barnhart & Stein, 1962)

Autonomous: self-governing, independent

Bequest: a disposition in a will concerning personal property, especially money (Barnhart & Stein, 1962)

HBCU(s): Historically Black Colleges and Universities

Imperialist: one who believes in the overtaking of less politically and economically powerful territories by those which are stronger

Posterity: succeeding generations (Barnhart & Stein, 1962)

Posthumous: after death

Social Justice: a movement to establish equality and fairness in all aspects of social life (The Centre for Social Justice, 2007)

Bibliography

Arnold, K. (2002). What role do elite colleges play? About Campus, 7 , 4. Retrieved November 26, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9366906&site=ehost-live

Barnhart, C. L., & Stein, J. (Eds.). (1962). The American college dictionary. New York: Random House, Inc.

Cohen, J. (2000). Gates gives Cambridge a rival to Rhodes. Science, 290 (5491), 422. Retrieved November 26, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4010821&site=ehost-live

Danisch, R. (2012). The roots and form of Obama's rhetorical pragmatism. Rhetoric Review, 31, 148-168. Retrieved December 27, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=73909876&site=ehost-live

Davis, R. J., Nagle, B., Richards, D. R., & Awokoya, J. T. (2013). The impact of the Gates Millennium Scholars Program on college choice for high-achieving, low-income African American students. Journal of Negro Education, 82, 226-242. Retrieved December 27, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=92546434&site=ehost-live

Howard Celebrates Another Rhodes Scholar. (2003). Black Issues in Higher Education, 19 , 9. Retrieved November 26, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9001805&site=ehost-live

More than Ninety Years After Its Founding, the Rhodes Committee Is Looking to Candidates from Black Colleges. (2003, Spring). The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 39, 56-57.

Reiss, M. B. (2011). Veterans deserve a chance to be Rhodes Scholars. Chronicle of Higher Education, 58, A28. Retrieved December 27, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=66814680&site=ehost-live

Rocca, F. (2003). Picking the world's future leaders. Chronicle of Higher Education, 49 , A34. Retrieved November 26, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=8953833&site=ehost-live

Rotberg, R. I. (1988). The founder: Cecil Rhodes and the pursuit of power. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schaeper, T. J., & Schaeper, K. (1998). Cowboys into gentlemen: Rhodes Scholars, Oxford, and the creation of an American elite. New York: Berghahn Books.

Slater, R. B. (1993/1994, Winter). Black Rhodes Scholars in academia. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 2, 102-107.

Stimpson, C. (1993). Hopes and fears. Change, 25 , 50. Retrieved November 26, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9302180766&site=ehost-live

The Centre for Social Justice. (2007). Key issues. Retrieved December 11, 2007, from http://www.socialjustice.org/index.php?page=key-issues

The Rhodes Trust. (2007). Oxford and the Rhodes Scholarships. Vienna, Virginia: Office of the American Secretary, the Rhodes Trust.

Wylie, Sir Francis. (1955a). First arrivals. In Lord Elton (Ed.), The first fifty years of the Rhodes Trust and the Rhodes scholarships (pp. 77-91). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Wylie, Sir Francis. (1955b). Settling down. In Lord Elton (Ed.), The first fifty years of the Rhodes Trust and the Rhodes scholarships (pp. 92-102). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Wylie, Sir Francis. (1955c). The scholarships are born. In Lord Elton (Ed.), The first fifty years of the Rhodes Trust and the Rhodes scholarships (pp. 59-76). Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Suggested Reading

Aydelotte, F. (1946). The American Rhodes scholarships: A review of the first forty years. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

John Edgar Wideman: A Return to His Roots. (2005, May). Literary Cavalcade, 57 , 39. Retrieved November 26, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=16846852&site=ehost-live

Just One African American on the Current Rhodes Scholarship List. (2000/2001, Winter). The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 30, 58-59.

Pietsch, T. (2011). Many Rhodes: Travelling scholarships and imperial citizenship in the British academic world, 1880–1940. History of Education, 40, 723-739. December 27, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=67188146&site=ehost-live

Rocca, F. (2003). Rhodes Scholars accuse program's administrator of neglecting his obligations. Chronicle of Higher Education, 49 , A43. Retrieved November 26, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=10073193&site=ehost-live

Stewart, J. C. (2001, Spring). Alain LeRoy Locke at Oxford: The first African-American Rhodes Scholar. The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education, 31, 112-117.

Youn, T. I. K., Arnold, K. D., & Salkever, K. (1999). Pathways to prominence: The effects of social origins and education on career achievements of American Rhodes Scholars. Paper presented at the 24th annual meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, San Antonio, TX.