Sexual Development Across the Lifespan

The sexual lifespan includes childhood sexual development, adolescent sexual development, adult sexual development, and sex in older adults. Impacts include puberty, menarche, and adolescent issues such as teen pregnancy, the use of birth control, and statistical applications. Marriage and sexual activity are also presented. Applications related to the roots of sexual development theory are also given. Issues concerning homosexual sexual development indicate relevant themes from research and implications for extended research.

Keywords Adolescence; Andropause; Childhood Sexual Development; Cohabitation; Gender Identity; Homosocial Groups; Human Sexuality; Marriage; Maturity; Menopause; Reproduction

Sex, Gender & Sexuality > Sexual Development across the Lifespan

Overview

Human Sexual Development

According to DeLamater and Friedrich (2002), human sexuality might be described as a developmental process manifesting different characteristics throughout the human lifespan resulting in stages and milestones consisting of biological and behavioral components. Four stages of development can be identified and characterized in accordance with resulting biological and behavioral manifestations:

• Childhood sexual development,
• Adolescent sexual development,
• Adult sexual development, and
• Sex among older adults.

In his model of sexual development, Bancroft (1989) distinguished three different strands of sexual development, which can be identified as "gender identity, sexual response and the capacity for close, dyadic relationships" (p. 149). Jannsen (2007) added to the conversation regarding human sexual development by arguing that cultural aspects affect human sexuality in multiple ways. All of these factors create the context for better understanding the different stages of human sexuality and provide a framework for understanding not only the biological and behavioral attributes of human sexuality but may also contribute to the cultural interplay as well.

Applications

Childhood Sexual Development

De Graaf and Rademakers (2006) indicated that developing an improved insight into the sexual behavior and feelings of children has become increasingly important. In Western society, parents and educators find it difficult to decide how to react to children's sexual behaviors or questions about sexuality asked by children due to a growing societal fear regarding the risks of sexual victimization by adult predators. According to research that is available on child sexual development and a general consensus of empirical evidence, many opportunities for enhanced understanding regarding increased knowledge of childhood sexual developmental stages exist that seem to point out "which sexual behaviors and feelings should be considered ‘normal’ for children of certain ages, genders, or cultural backgrounds" (p. 2).

According to Masters, Johnson, and Kolodny (1982), sexual response in infants was found to be evident from birth. For example, vaginal lubrication has been identified in female infants within 24 hours after birth, and in male infants, erections have also been triggered and documented. Moreover, Martinson (1994) indicated that infants have been identified fondling their genitalia and digitally manipulating their genitalia from 2 ½ to 3 years of age. Moreover, the touching of genital parts has been documented in early childhood and even before birth (Brenot & Broussin, 1996). "After birth boys of 6 to 8 months of age and girls of 8 to 11 months of age reportedly discover their genitals by unintentionally touching them" (De Graaf & Rademakers, 2006, p. 4). Masturbation can be identified as a behavior that is solitary in nature and occurs when an individual touches or stimulates his or her own genitals, typically for the purpose of stimulating sexual arousal (Bancroft, Herbenick, & Reynolds, 2003; Goldman & Goldman, 1988). Friedrich, Fisher, Broughton, Houston, and Shafran (1998) indicated that masturbatory behaviors are normal and can be observed and indicated by the sexual play of young children, and becomes more clandestine in children aged 6 to 9 after children become more aware of cultural norms attributed to sexual behavior (Reynolds, Herbenick, & Brancroft, 2003). Other sexual expressions might be rooted in pervasive sucking behaviors, cuddling, and other kinds of stimulation (De Lamater & Friedrich, 2002, p. 10).

Bowlby (1965) indicated that attachments form between infants and their parents that affect the quality and capability of relationships and form the basis for a child's sexual and emotional attachments and relationships throughout the lifespan. Goldberg, Muir, and Kerr (1995) argued that appropriate and positive physical contact offers the opportunity to provide stable and fulfilling emotional attachments in adulthood. Moreover, the role of gender identity typically forms between the ages of 18 and 30 months and can be described as an individual's sense of "maleness" or "femaleness." From an early age, children sense gender distinctions and stereotypes and attempt to sort themselves in a gender. Gender development is not linear and can fluctuate through childhood (Martin and Ruble, 2010). At the same time biological identity forms, a behavioral manifestation of gender-role identity is being socialized by others in relation to the child (Bussey & Bandura, 1999). Goldman and Goldman (1982) further identified that children from ages 3 to 7 demonstrate an increased level of interest in gender roles, practiced by playing house or assuming other adult roles tending toward gender specificity. Moreover, children might engage in "playing doctor" and demonstrate an increased interest in the genitals of other children or adults due to increased sexual interest (Okami, Olmstead, & Abramson, 1997).

Indicated by multiple researchers, the showing and touching of genitals can also be part of mutual sexual experiences between children in which both children play an active role (Goldman & Goldman, 1988; Haugaard, 1996; Lamb & Coakley, 1993; Larsson & Svedin, 2002; Reynolds, Herbenick, & Bancroft, 2003). As a result of increased sexual interest, parents may restrict the information they provide their children, and children may resort to gaining information from their peers (Martinson, 1994), leading to potential misinformation resulting in misinterpretation and misidentification. Parents are encouraged to use the correct biological terms for genitals and answer childrens’ questions with honesty. It should be noted that experiences with no direct genital contact, such as talking about sex, kissing and hugging, and exposure of genitals, are most common in children up to 12 years. Finally, experiences with oral-genital contact, vaginal or anal insertion with an object or finger, and vaginal or anal intercourse are highly unusual between children 12 years old and younger (de Graaf & Rademakers, 2006, p. 11).

Adolescent Sexual Development

Thome (1993) indicated that during the stage of preadolescent sexual development, children organize themselves into homosocial groups, which can be described as a social division of males and females. One theory as to why this occurs is due to the sexual exploration and learning that occurs in homosocial groups involving individuals of the same gender. Children at this stage gain experience with masturbation as identified by a study indicating that 38 percent of men surveyed and 40 percent of women surveyed recalled masturbating before the onset of puberty (Bancroft, Herbenick, & Reynolds, 2003, p. 161). Furthermore, preadolescents at the ages of 10 to 12 years begin to experience sexual attraction followed by sexual fantasies occurring from several months to one year later (Bancroft et al, 2003; Rosario, Meyer-Bahlburg, Hunter, Exner, Gwadz, & Keller, 1996). Indicatively, homosocial interactions and subsequent exposures from these relationships may initiate the capacity for sustained intimate relationships (Thome, 1993). Simultaneously, behavioral changes are accompanied by biological changes associated with puberty, which begins from 10 years of age to 14 years of age. From a physiological perspective, gonads, genitalia, and secondary sexual characteristics enlarge and mature during this time (Tanner, 1967), all leading to an increased sexual interest and rising levels of sexual hormones and accompanying sexual fantasies.

During adolescence, bodily changes stimulate physical growth, increases in genital size and female breast size, combined with the onset of facial and pubic hair. Reportedly, these changes signal to the adolescent and to others that sexual maturity is occurring. In addition to increased testosterone and estrogen levels and other biological factors, behavioral manifestations create opportunities for sexual interactions that facilitate or inhibit sexual expression (Udry, 1988). Bancroft et al. (2003) reported that males typically begin masturbating between the ages of 13 to 15 and girls somewhat later. However, precipitating factors for increased masturbation and heterosexual intercourse may be attributed to social and family issues unique to a child's upbringing. Permissive attitudes regarding sexual behavior, contrasted by regular "church attendance and long-range educational and career plans," both of which may delay female sexual activity (de Lamater & Friedrich, 2002, p. 11).

According to researchers, adolescents are having heterosexual and homosexual intercourse at earlier ages than in the past, which can be attributed to several factors. First, the age at which females have their first period has been falling since the beginning of the twentieth century. In the early 2000s, the average Caucasian female had her menarche (or first period) at about 150 months (or 12.5 years) of age, and the average African American female had her first period at 144 months (12 years) of age, according to a 2012 study published in Social Science & Medicine. As the twenty-first century progressed, those ages dropped further, with the onset of menstruation occurring as young as eight (Henigsman & Behring, 2021). Additionally, young men and women are increasingly delaying marriage. In 1960, women, on average, married for the first time at 20.8 years of age, while men, on average, married for the first time at 22.8 years of age. In 2009, the median age of first marriage was 26.5 years of age for women and 28.4 years of age for men (Elliott & Simmons, 2011). By 2021, the median age for a woman’s first marriage rose to 28.6, and for men, the age increased to 30.6 (Duffin, 2022). Additionally, since increasing numbers of individuals are marrying later, there has been a substantial gap between biological readiness and the age of marriage of typically 14 to 16 years. Finally, that the rate of teen pregnancies increased between the 1970s and 1991 would appear to indicate that teens used birth control only sporadically during these years; however, the teen pregnancy rate declined by 44 percent between 1991 and 2010 (Hamilton & Ventura, 2012), potentially reflecting increased access to birth control by teens, increased attention in society to the importance of preventing pregnancy for adolescents, and increased economic opportunities for teenagers (Ventura, Mosher, Curtin, Abma, & Henshaw, 1998). Research should be ongoing in the areas of sexual education, STIs, and teenagers, and birth control and consistent teen use.

A National Health Statistics Report released in March 2011 indicated that from 2006 to 2008, 2 percent of adolescent males had had sexual encounters with other males, while 10 percent of adolescent females had had sexual encounters with other females. The adolescents participating in studies on teen homosexual behavior generally reported that these encounters were with a peer; some of the participants also indicated that these encounters were initiated out of curiosity and that the behavior was not ongoing (Bancroft et al., 2003; Turner, Rogers, Lindberg, Pleck, Sonenstein, & Turner, 1998). By 2019 these numbers had increased to 15 percent of adolescent girls and 3 percent of adolescent boys (ACT for Youth, 2022).

According to findings from the National High School Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 47.4 percent of U.S. high school students had had sexual intercourse at least once (2011). By 2019, 70 percent of adolescents reported having penile-vaginal intercourse (ACT for Youth, 2022). Adolescence is certainly a pivotal time in human sexual development (de Lamater & Friedrich, 2002, p. 11).

Adulthood & Sexual Development

Factors regarding sexual maturity continue into adulthood. Several factors play a role in adult sexual development and include effective communication between partners engaged in intimate relationships, making informed decisions regarding reproduction and the prevention of sexually transmitted infections (such as HIV), as well as decisions regarding sexual lifestyles, sexual satisfaction, and relationship factors.

In the twenty-first century, adults may choose among many relationship choices and lifestyles. Lifestyle choices include living single; remaining celibate; participating in a single, long-term monogamous relationship; participating in sexual relationships with several individuals; or engaging in serially monogamous relationships involving fidelity with one partner at a time for the duration of each relationship. African American men and women more often remain single than Caucasians. Between the years 2006 and 2010, 56 percent of African American males and 55 percent of African American females were never married in contrast with 44 percent of Caucasian men and 34 percent of Caucasian females (Copen, Daniels, Vespa & Mosher, 2012). In the 2020s, rates of marriage dropped further due to changes in social norms and expectations. According to Pew Research Center, in 2021, 63 percent of males below the age of 29 were single, and 30 percent of women in the same age group. Declining rates of marriage were attributed to evolving gender roles, increased access to pornography, and readjustment to life following the COVID-10 pandemic (Pew Research Center, 2021). Among reporting singles, 8 percent of the men aged eighteen to twenty-four, and 8.2 percent of the women in that age group usually had sex at least twice a week, while 56.9 percent of the men and 50.8 percent of the women in that age group had not had sex for at least one year, according to the 2010 National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (cited by Kinsey Institute, 2012). In 2018, 30.9 percent of men and 19.1 percent of women, all between the ages of 18 through 24, had been sexually inactive for a year, suggesting an increase in casual sexual encounters (Ueda, et al; 2020).

Despite relationship alternatives, in 2010, marriage was still categorized as the most prevalent sexual lifestyle choice in the United States. In 2010, 72 percent of American adults had been married at least once, and 61 percent of those never married wished to marry at some point (Cohn, Passel, Wang & Livingston, 2011). The 2010 National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior found that most American couples, either married or unmarried, engaged in sexual intercourse between two to three times a week to a few times a month (Kinsey Institute, 2012). Marriage continued to present the most legitimate social context for sexual expression, despite gradual changes in attitudes toward premarital sex and cohabitation. In the context of marriages in the United States, monogamy has been a widely accepted practice (Wiederman & Allgeier, 1996), and extramarital sex among marital couples is significantly disapproved within the societal context (Johnson, Stanley, Glenn, Amato, Nock, & Markman, 2002); however, 12.8 percent of General Social Survey respondents between 1972 and 2006 reported having engaged in extramarital sex at some point in their lives (NORC, 2006). By 2019, cohabitation had become the more dominant lifestyle choice for couples, and the marriage rates had fallen to 53 percent (Pew Research Center, 2021).

Amos (2006) stated, "Our view of marriage, its goals and its purposes have undergone a seismic shift during the last 50 years" (p. 270). Amos (2006) indicated that during the 1960s and 1970s, "a time of radical change began," theoretically constituted by an increased availability of contraception which offered different alternatives to women than was available in previous eras (p. 270). As a result of changing female roles and other contributing factors, cohabitation or "living together" is an increasing option, which can be characterized as a public statement regarding commitment and sexual relationships. While cohabitation may be temporary, according to the United States Census Bureau estimates for 2010, 6.8 million unmarried heterosexual couples and 646,000 unmarried same-sex couples were cohabitating. By 2018, living with a partner but remaining unmarried had become the dominant choice for adults ages 18 to 24 with 9 percent of the population and 15 percent of adults 25 through 34 (Gurrentz, 2018).

Sex & Older Adults

In addition to the changing context of coupling in America, other factors play a role in adult sexual development as well. For example, Smith (1994) reported a decline in the frequency of sexual intercourse with age. Additionally, biological factors that include physical changes and illness may be contributors to diminished sexual expression. DeLamater and Carpenter (2012) indicate that menopause occurs in the late forties to early fifties, and hormonal changes marking the menopausal transition can begin as many as ten years prior and continue for a number of years after. Gallicchio, Schilling, Tomic, Miller, Zacur, and Flaws (2007) note a reported decline in sexual activity during the menopausal transition (pp. 132–133). This occurrence might indicate that sexual frequency is tied directly to biological as well as relationship factors. The relationship between the menopausal transition and decreased sexual function has been observed in women despite relationship variables. These relationship variables include "general well-being, physical and mental health, the occurrence of menopausal symptoms, and life situation (p. 133). Moreover, a "hallmark of the menopausal transition is a decline in ovarian function, resulting in dramatic changes in hormone levels" (p. 133). Additional studies should be considered on the impacts of biological, physical, relationship, emotional, and mental health impacts of aging and sexual development.

In contrast with women, men experience andropause (Lamberts, van den Beld, & van der Lely, 1997), which can be described as a ADAM-androgen decline that occurs as men age. This results in a gradual decline in testosterone production, which can occur as early as age 40 (Morales, Heaton, & Carson, 2000). During this time, erections may occur more slowly, and men may experience increased control over their sexual response. According to AARP, 40 percent of older, healthy humans between the ages of 65 to 80 years may continue to have regular opportunities for satisfying sexual expression in all forms, including masturbation and homosexual behavior (Bunis, 2018). It would seem that much more research exists in terms of female menopause as opposed to male andropause. Additional research should be considered in this area.

Viewpoints

Sigmund Freud

From a developmental application, the study of childhood sexuality is rooted in the work of Sigmund Freud. According to Galatzer-Levy & Cohler (1993), Freud approached theories related to childhood sexuality from the viewpoint of a male child. Indicatively, Freud postulated that life could best be understood from the viewpoint of a child, and he believed postadolescent development was nonexistent. Moreover, Freud viewed sexuality as "a generalization of the pleasures associated with mucous membrane stimulation and as the central motive for relating to other people" (p. 5). Anzieu (1975) indicated that much of Freud's beliefs regarding sexual development were rooted in his own experiences, postulating that Freud was jealous of his own father and had formed an erotic attachment to his mother.

Moreover, many of Freud's theories toward childhood sexuality and fascination could be exemplified by Shakespeare's character Hamlet, who similarly possessed an incestuous desire toward his mother and possessed ambivalence toward his dead father, later displaced by a burgeoning hatred toward his stepfather (pp. 235–236). Anzieu (1975) argued that Freud's work was greatly influenced by his treatment of a man who suffered from obsessive neurosis and homicidal thoughts, ailments that Freud identified in himself (Cohler & Galatzer-Levy, 2008). While seemingly a potentially strange application, Freud's work is considered a key developmental aspect of human sexuality. By the 2020s, much of Freud’s work had begun to be called into question.

Homosexuality

Significant issues related to human sexual development are those related to gay and bisexual men (Berger, 1996; Grossman, D'Augelli, & Hershberger, 2000; Lee, 1989; Vacha, 1985). Murry and Adam (2001) researched and identified several themes regarding homosexuality and human sexual development. Some of the themes included public image as represented by the media, relationships between younger and older men and the orientation of youthfulness in gay culture, a search for intimacy at all ages, and the impact of an entire generation marked by HIV/AIDS. All of these issues were indicated to have played a significant role in the human sexual development of homosexual men.

Beginning in the late 2010s and continuing into the 2020s, scholarly attention began to focus more on the development of lesbian, bisexual, transsexual, or transgender sexualities, as distinct from gay male sexuality and from one another. Findings for combined LGBTQ+ populations indicate that sexual minorities experience different levels of psychosocial adjustment depending on when sexual identity formation occurs (Rosario, Schrimshaw & Hunter, 2011) and that although social stigma and discrimination continue to be hurdles for LGBTQ+ youth, most are as healthy as their heterosexual peers (Saewyc, 2011). Additional research into these areas of combined interest, as well as the sexual development of lesbian, bisexual, transsexual, and transgendered people, is needed.

Elderly Sexual Activity

Another important issue regarding human sexuality and development relates to attitudes, especially those which define specific behaviors as appropriate or inappropriate. According to DeLamater & Friedrich (2002), sexual attitudes especially relate to age factors and sexual expression and the elderly. Sexual attitudes and prejudice are perpetuated by the unacceptable notion that individuals over 75 should not engage in sexual activity, especially masturbation. A derivative of these attitudes is directly linked to negative attitudes in elder care facilities and nursing homes. Often times, sexual behavior between aged individuals in these kinds of facilities are prohibited. "These attitudes affect the way the elderly are treated, and the elderly may hold such attitudes themselves. These attitudes may be a more important reason why many elderly people are not sexually active than the biological changes they experience" (p. 13). Additional work should be considered in creating a "system of diversity" for all individuals regardless of age or sexual orientation.

Conclusion

Human sexual development across the lifespan is a dynamic phenomenon with multiple facets. According to researchers, studies of childhood sexuality are difficult to obtain because of the potential victimization of children. However, studies that do exist demonstrate that children of all ages display behaviors or have feelings that could be identified as sexual in nature. DeLamater & Friedrich (2002) indicated that human sexual development begins in infancy and certainly extends across the lifespan of humans. Conclusively, human sexuality integrates both behavioral and biological factors manifested in aging, child development, adolescence and puberty, adulthood, and old age. Development at all of these stages shapes sexual attitudes and sexual identity and directly impacts sexual behavior. While humans certainly share similarities in their sexual progression, it is further indicated that differences are also present (p. 13). Additional research should be considered in all areas of human sexual development in order to shed light on this area of continued interest and importance in sociological studies and society.

Terms & Concepts

Childhood Sexual Development: Childhood sexual development can be described as stages that take place throughout childhood that seem to point out which sexual behaviors and feelings should be considered "normal" for children of certain ages, genders, or cultural backgrounds.

Cohabitation: Cohabitation can be described as "living together," which can be characterized as a public statement regarding commitment and sexual relationship as an alternative to marriage.

Gender Identity: Gender identity can be described as a process that begins to develop typically around the age of 3 and can be described as an individual's sense of "maleness" or "femaleness."

Homosocial Groups: Homosocial groups can be described as a social division of males and females in group settings.

Human Sexuality: Freud believed that human sexuality is a driving force in people's relations with one another.

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Saewyc, E. M. (2011). Research on adolescent sexual orientation: Development, health disparities, stigma, and resilience. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 256–272. Retrieved November 12, 2013 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=58121355

Smith, T. W. (1994). The demography of sexual behavior. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.

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Suggested Reading

Chodorow, N. (1999). The power of feelings. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

De Graaf, H., & Rademakers, J. (2011). The psychological measurement of childhood sexual development in western societies: Methodological challenges. Journal of Sex Research, 48(2/3), 118–129. Retrieved from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=59329790

Friedman, R. C. (1988). Male homosexuality: A contemporary psychoanalytic perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Gay, P. (1988). Freud: A life for our time. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

Martinson, F. M. (1994). The sexual life of the child. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey.

Sandfort, T. (2012). Childhood sexuality: Normal behavior and development. New York, NY: Routledge.

Schur, M. (1972). Freud living and dying. New York, NY: International Universities Press.

Thatcher, A. (1999). Marriage after modernity: Christian marriage in postmodern times. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press.