Single-Parent Household

Abstract

Many distinct elements impact single-parent households. These include diminished social capital for children, education, socioeconomic factors, potential health and psychological concerns, the criminalization of fathers, and abuse of mothers. This article provides an overview of these phenomena through a sociological lens. Applications will be presented that describe the effects of single-parent households on general society, including aspects that benefit society. A conclusion will be offered that supports the need for future research into each of the variables composing the single-parent household.

Overview

According to Cunningham and Knoester, the number of single-parent families in the United States has increased significantly since the 1970s. Moreover, the fastest growing family type in the United States has been the single-parent family, which in 2020 constituted 15.1 percent of all households with coresident parents and children under eighteen, according to the 2020 Current Population Survey. In 2023, there were 15,086 children who lived in single-mother households, while 3,054 children lived in single-father households.

Weitoft, Hiem, Haglund, and Rosen (2003) argued that "childhood family background still seems to be an important predictor of a person's life chances as an adult. Moreover, in the second half of the twentieth century, growing up with one parent is increasingly common" for children in the post-industrial world. In researching the multiple impacts of the single-parent family, researchers have assessed the implications of "parental achievement, conduct, psychological adjustment, social competence, and health." Weitoft et al. further concluded that children and adolescents from single-parent households demonstrated higher propensity toward “psychiatric disease, suicide or suicide attempt, injury and addiction” contrasted with those in two-parent households. Specifically, “boys in single-parent families had higher risks than girls for psychiatric and drug-related diseases, and also a raised risk of all-cause mortality.” Additional research indicates that the multiple impacts of single-parent households on children are numerous and complex.

Effect on Social Capital. Before Weitoft et al.'s findings were reported, Coleman (1988) argued that the most prominent element of "structural deficiency in modern families" is the single-parent family. In his research, Coleman identified the ideal situations in which social capital is accumulated in relation to family situation. He suggested that “a number of influences linked to the industrialization and modernization of societies meant that the family in its modern form is low in social capital when compared with formations in earlier times.” To initiate further understanding, social capital has been described as “a characteristic of the relations between people.” Social capital advantages occur when trust and reciprocity allow for access to resources such as human and cultural capital that already exist within the community or social network. Bourdieu described social capital as both a quality and quantity of relationships: "first, the social relationship itself that allows individuals to claim access to resources possessed by their associates, and second, the amount and quality of these resources" (Portes, 1998). In this understanding, "social capital is something possessed by individuals that gains its strength in the aggregate of social networks" (Seamen & Sweeting, 2004). Research into social capital and young people's outcomes also focuses on education. Coleman presented data showing “higher school drop-out rates for pupils with a single parent, several siblings and no maternal college expectations” (Seamen & Sweeting, 2004).

Aquilino (cited in Moore, Vandivere, & Redd, 2006) indicated that "among children who were born to unmarried mothers, and those who grew up with a single parent or in a stepfamily were less likely to complete high school than those who were adopted or who transitioned to living with two biological parents." Another study indicated that, for White youths only, a larger portion of childhood spent in a two-parent family was associated with lower probabilities of high school dropout, marijuana use, and teen parenthood. Cleveland (2003) reported that "adolescence may be the most important time to consider the effects of neighborhoods on risk behaviors, such as aggression and delinquency." Social disorganization theory explains that the higher levels of delinquency, crime, and other behavioral problems in structurally disadvantaged neighborhoods are due to lower levels of informal social controls caused by these disadvantages.

The Two-Parent Family Advantage. Adolescents who receive parenting that protects them from neighborhood dangers and cultivates opportunities outside the neighborhood can avoid negative outcomes. By providing adolescents with consistent emotional support and discipline, effective supervision, and close emotional ties, cohesive families can often overcome neighborhood disadvantages. Moreover, Saylor, Boyce, and Price (2003) indicated that "family variables in the first months of a child's life including low income, single-parent household, and high parenting stress were significantly correlated with behavior problems appearing at 7.5 years of age." They concluded that "it appears that being in households which are financially secure and have two parents may minimize the likelihood of later behavior problems, even in low-birth-weight youngsters with known neurological insults."

Applications

Primary applications of the impact of single-parent households include:

• Education,
• Socioeconomic factors,
• Potential health and psychological concerns,
• The criminalization of fathers, and
• Abuse of mothers

Education. Studies in the United States and Britain have found that educational attainment is related to family structure. Marriage is positively associated with education and employment. Education, employment status, race, age, marital status, and number of children are also associated with psychological well-being. Children who were born to unmarried mothers or those who grew up with a single parent or in a stepfamily were less likely to complete high school than those who were adopted or who transitioned to living with two biological parents.

In addition, low parental educational attainment is a risk factor for poor cognitive development, and for not completing high school. Mothers' educational attainment has also been negatively associated with aggressive behaviors among adolescents and teen childbearing. According to each of these studies, education can directly be impacted by living in single-parent households.

Socioeconomic Factors. According to Weitoft, Hiem, Haglund, and Rosen, the socioeconomic situation of children in families with only one adult was different from that of children in families with two adults. More single parents than couples were unskilled manual workers, low-grade non-manual workers, and people without an occupation, whereas couples were more likely than single parents to be high-grade or medium-grade non-manual workers.

Additionally, women with lower levels of schooling, which was reported to be highly correlated with socioeconomic status, have a higher risk of being separated from their partners and being made single mothers. Weitoft et al. (2003) also believe that the "style of living in a large city moves toward an increase in the number of single parents, rather than the idea that becoming a single parent leads to urban migration." In addition, single parents tend to experience a higher rate of long-term unemployment than do married parents.

According to Laasko, in terms of custodial and non-custodial parental responsibilities, financial contributions have often been seen as “a key factor in explaining both mothers' and fathers' behaviors and the frequency of visits with their children. As stated by Lin and McLanahan, fathers are likely to demand more time with their children in exchange for financial remunerations. Teitler pointed out that academic and public interest in the contributions of fathers was long limited to their role as breadwinners. As a result, there has been an increase in child support payments along with parenting plans established (Grail, 2002).” Moreover, Primus (2006) indicated that "an examination of trends since 1979 suggests that periods of economic recession and expansion affect child living arrangements. In general, economic slowdowns tend to lead to a reduction in the proportion of children living with married parents, an increase in cohabitation, and an increase in single parent households." All of these factors are indicative of socio-economic efficacy and corresponding impacts on single parent households.

Health & Psychological Concerns. Head Injuries. Rubin, Christian, Bilaniuk, Zazyczny, and Durbin reported that among children with head injuries in 2003, 72 percent came from single-parent households, 37 percent had mothers whose age was less than 21 years, and 26 percent had a history of prior child welfare involvement in their families. They wrote, "Head injury is the leading cause of death in abused children under 2 years of age, and early detection of head injuries can limit significant morbidity and mortality" attributed to the injury. "Multiple investigators have shown that most children with inflicted head injury have evidence of other occult (hidden) injuries, including fractures, at the time they present for medical care" (Rubin et al., 2003). Rubin et al. further wrote, "Given the importance of confirming child abuse and influencing safety recommendations before medical discharge, we believe the finding of such a high prevalence of occult head injury in this study should influence guidelines regarding screening of this population" (p. 1383). Based on this study, the researchers stated, "Our finding of a relatively high prevalence of occult head injury in this cohort suggests the need for universal screening of similar high-risk abused children." Additional health issues also exist for targeted groups, such as higher propensities toward obesity and psychological issues.

Obesity. Epidemiological studies have indicated that the "prevalence of obesity in the United States is on the rise" (Gable & Lutz, 2000). Moreover, the prevalence of obesity in children and youth had increased to 19.7 percent in 2017–20, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Obesity is associated with chronic disease and harmful health conditions; the growing incidence of obesity is a serious public health issue. Research indicates that demographic characteristics of the family also show associations with food consumption, food preparation, and food availability. The structure of the family can directly impact these three contributing factors to obesity in children.

In considering the issue of childhood obesity, a look at Maslow's hierarchy of needs sheds some insight. Maslow's theory “emphasized the basic physiological needs of humans as fundamental to meeting higher-order socio-emotional needs and self-actualization.” According to researchers, few can deny the interference of early childhood obesity in meeting the need for physical health and safety, acceptance, and self-esteem. Wolf and Colditz (1996) further indicated that "diabetes and heart disease were direct impacts of obesity, and indirect impacts included missed work, lost health, and quality of life." Few could dispute the interplay of issues such as these and their impacts on American families. Aside from the impact on children of parents in single-parent households and the dangers of childhood obesity, single adults are also impacted by these issues, further marginalizing these adults and cycling them into subsequent demoralization and family decentralization.

Psychological Factors. According to Cunningham and Knoester (2007), raising children is “negatively associated with parents' psychological well-being and this relationship is exacerbated for single parents . . . mothers are more likely to be affected by the burdens of childrearing than fathers.” Their research has suggested that “single parents are less likely to have their parenting burdens alleviated by a committed co-parent.” In contrast, married individuals are less depressed and anxious and report being happier than non-married people. According to these findings, part of this is directly linked to support that a spouse may offer in performing parenting tasks, contributing to the financial stability of the household, and providing support to reduce burdens on a parent's psychological well-being. Additional research is needed to explore the ways parenthood influences parental psychological well-being.

Criminalization of Fathers.The number of divorces has consistently declined in forty-five US states and the District of Columbia since 2000. In that year, 944,000 divorces were enacted. In 2022, this figure had dropped to approximately 673,900 according to the National Center for Health Statistics. Nonetheless, "more than a million children become victims of divorce each year" (Baskerville, 2004). Gallagher (1996) indicated that a "no-fault" divorce, or what is called "unilateral" divorce, allows one spouse to sue the other for divorce with no incurred liability for the consequences. is partially responsible for this phenomenon. Researchers have reported that most divorces are "unilateral," and all told, Brinig and Allen (2000) determined that women file for divorce more often than men.

In his July 16, 1992, presidential acceptance speech, Bill Clinton remarked that fathers "have chosen to abandon their children." Brinig and Allen (2000) disagreed and stated, "We have found that who gets the children is by far the most important component in deciding who files for divorce." The US Department of Justice noted in 2020 that the Child Support Recovery Act of 1992 and the Deadbeat Parents Punishment Act of 1998 made failure to pay court-mandated child support a federal crime subject to fines and prison sentences. Baskerville reported, "What we are seeing today is nothing less than the criminalization of parents, most often the fathers. A father who is legally unimpeachable can be turned into a criminal by the regime of involuntary divorce." (Baskerville, 2004). From this standpoint, Baskerville further wrote, "No allegations of wrongdoing, either civil or criminal, are required. And no agreement to a divorce or separation is necessary . . . Yet from this point, if he [a father] tries to see his children outside the authorized times or fails to pay the child support, . . . he will be subject to arrest." Further research is needed to determine the sociological impacts of such criminalization—both on fathers and children.

Abuse of Mothers. McInnes (2004) wrote, "The formation of single mother households is strongly connected with domestic violence, yet the implications of this connection, especially for children have remained largely unexplored." Research from Australia explored culturally based reasons for divorce and determined that after communication breakdowns, violence, and addictions of the partner were the most common reasons women gave for ending the relationship. Laing also determined that domestic violence towards mothers impacts children. She indicates that children may be affected as direct targets or secondary victims. Just witnessing the violence can impair children.

McInnes (2004) indicated that "mothers fleeing violence were often forced to leave their housing and possessions to effect separation." Additionally, without housing or the resources and opportunity to retrieve property, mothers and children were often forced to seek help from women's shelters and family support services . . . Mothers who fled violence had to deal with a range of legal issues potentially encompassing the civil courts, the criminal court and the Family Court . . . In cases of continuing contact between children and abusive fathers, both mothers and children were unable to work on recovery from their trauma, remaining hostage to the potential and actuality of ongoing violence.

Findings from McInnes's study indicate that schools and children's services should ensure that "counseling staff have training in supporting children and parents recovering from trauma or coping with continuing violence, as well as building links with agencies and services providing professional assistance to adults and children recovering from violence.".

Issues

According to Acs and Nelson (2004), "Children living outside of married-parent households are at a greater risk of living in poverty, experiencing food and housing insecurity, and exhibiting behavioral problems compared to children living with married parents" (cited in Primus, 2006). Primus, while acting as senior policy advisor to the House Democratic leader, indicated that economic trends may impact single-parent and two-parent households. He examined trends from 1979 onward and suggested that such economic trends usually affect child living arrangements. He further indicated that the decline in the number of children living with married parents briefly stabilized during the 1990s. Notably, in general, "economic slowdowns tend to lead to a reduction in the proportion of children living with married parents, an increase in cohabitation, and an increase in single-parent households." From 2000 to 2003, Primus indicated that "among the poorest children, the proportion living in lone-mother-headed households increased by 1.5 percentage points over the most recent recessionary period." Although, Primus argued that economic reform could potentially affect child living arrangements, it is inadvisable to ignore the impact of welfare reform from within its broader economic, policy, and demographic contexts. Therefore, policymakers should “focus on examining what went right in the 1990s to determine how those gains can be repeated” in successive years. In 2021, 31.7 percent of US children living in single-parent households were living below the poverty line.

Conclusion

Studies of single-parent households indicate that in addition to the negative impacts on children from divorce, particularly those from impoverished backgrounds, parents are likewise affected. Moreover, little research has been done regarding potential benefits or non-effects. Additional research into the long-term, longitudinal impacts of single-parent households is recommended to better understand the impact of this phenomenon.

In the 2020s, sociologists have begun advocating for the study of the nuances of family structure in the context of racial and ethnic diversity. This is deemed important, particularly toward the construction of policies and legislation governing forms of familial support. Also needed is more demographically diverse research on structures such as the single-parent household and its impact on parents and children. This is to ensure greater inclusion and representation. Experts have emphasized that different populations face differing economic and social challenges, including systemic racism.

Terms & Concepts

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: The basic physiological needs of humans as fundamental to meeting higher-order socio-emotional needs and self-actualization (Gable & Lutz, 2000).

"No Fault" Divorce: Also called "unilateral" divorce, allows one spouse to sue the other for divorce with no incurred liability for the consequences.

Occult Injuries: "Hidden" injuries that go undetected without specifically examining a patient to look for them.

Single-Parent Households: Households with children in which only one parent is present.

Social Capital: "A characteristic of the relations between people" (Seaman & Sweeting, 2004). Social capital advantages occur when trust and reciprocity allow for access to resources such as human and cultural capital that already exist within the community or social network.

Social Disorganization Theory: A theory explaining that the higher levels of delinquency, crime, and other behavioral problems in structurally disadvantaged neighborhoods are due to lower levels of informal social controls caused by these disadvantages.

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