Social Cognition

Social Cognition theory has broadened our knowledge of the role people play in their own learning experiences. This article follows the evolution of the theory of Social Cognition by examining concepts such as human agency, symbolic learning, self-reflection, reinforcements, and reciprocal determinism. It also discusses the importance of the concepts, self-efficacy and self-regulation, to the theory. The theory of Social Cognition, when coupled with works of theorists like Lev Vygotsky, work to explain how reality is socially constructed and that all learning occurs within the frame of this constructed reality.

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Educational Psychology >Social Cognition

Overview

Mary needs to teach her son, Rick, to turn his homework in to his teacher. Rick loves to build model cars at home. Mary talks to his teacher and they devise a plan. Each day that Rick turns in his homework, the teacher will give him a piece of a model car that Rick has been dying to build. What is the behavior Rick is supposed to learn? How might the above scenario be teaching Rick to learn the desired behavior? Does the rewarding of a new behavior guarantee success? Are there any other factors that might determine whether this learning experience is successful?

Theories of learning have been shaped by two primary theories, Behaviorism and Social Cognition. In order to understand the underpinnings of Social Cognition, one must first have a general understanding of Behaviorism.

Defining Learning

Early researcher's defined learning as the observable changes resulting from rewards or punishments directed at shaping a new behavior (Pajares, 2002). This school of thought was called Behaviorism because direct, observable reinforcements were used to induce the learning experience and the learner's observable behavior was the only accepted measure of learning success. Behaviorists believed that people were fairly passive in the learning experience; learning could be induced by simply providing appropriate reinforcements for a desired new behavior. According to Behaviorists, practicing (reinforced with immediate rewards) is what leads to learned behavior. Behaviorism became a popular practice for teachers and parents who wanted to teach children new ways to behave. However, some psychologists believed that what was going on inside the learner's head was an important factor in the learning equation. Albert Bandura was one of those psychologists. He believed that "a psychology without introspection cannot aspire to explain the complexities of human functioning" (Pajares, 2002, p. 2)

Social Cognition Theory

In the mid-1960s Bandura developed a theory of Social Learning, based on the works of Piaget, which eventually evolved into the theory of Social Cognition. He believed that what a person thinks (i.e., cognates) about happenings in the environment needs to be considered as a factor in the complex experience called learning (Bandura, 1994). Social Cognition theory has broadened knowledge of the role people play in their own learning experiences. Key to this theory is the idea that cognitive processes, not reinforced practice, guides a learner's behaviors (Hartman, 1996). It includes concepts of human agency and symbolic learning while pointing out that the mental state of the learner impacts potential learning.

Social Cognition theory is grounded in the notion of human agency, meaning learners are "contributors to their life circumstances, not just products of them" (Bandura, 2006, p. 164). It is important to note that the individual identity that provides the foundation for human agency has been socially constructed - no individual develops in isolation (Bandura, 2006). A learner may use introspection (i.e., self-reflection) to decide how a new experience fits with current knowledge and to determine whether to attach value to the new knowledge. The learner may facilitate or resist learning a new behavior by planning alternative strategies to the learning experience. These strategies could shorten the time needed to learn a new behavior or may thwart any attempts at teaching new behaviors. Most importantly, each learner must be capable of symbolic learning.

Symbolic Learning

Symbolic learning is a complicated process requiring memory, attention to social prompts, and meaning making on the part of the learner. Learners acquire 'memory codes' of all they see and hear. These memory codes aid in scripting future behavior. Information regarding appropriate models for behavior can be conveyed by social prompts, consequences of particular behaviors, or the conveyance of information that is meant to alter current patterns of behavior (Hartman, 1996). However, learning potential is affected by the degree of attention the learner pays to the modeling. The perceptions and current mental state of the learner impact potential learning. Degree of attention will be affected by:

* The relevance and credibility of the model from the perspective of the observer

* The prestige of the model

* The level of satisfaction currently experienced by the observer in the modeled area

* The level of self esteem of the observer (Hartman, 1996)

Social Cognition theorists did not abandon the Behaviorist belief in the importance of reinforcements but, using the notions of symbolic learning and social modeling, built upon the definition to include consideration for instances of indirect reinforcement that may result in the learning of new behaviors. They include:

* Direct Reinforcement

* Vicarious Reinforcement

* Self-reinforcement

Direct Reinforcement is the same type of reinforcement described by Behaviorists. Learners are given immediate feedback for behavior in the form of rewards or punishments. Vicarious Reinforcement occurs when the learner observes the actions of another person and notes the consequences that person receives for those behaviors. The learner will remember whether the observed actions resulted in desirable consequences and will store that information for future use. Self-reinforcement occurs when the learner experiences feelings regarding whether personal performance is meeting established personal standards (Hartman, 1996; McInerney, 2005).

Reciprocal Determinism Model

Later works in Social Cognition focused on the development of the multidimensional constructs for the Reciprocal Determinism model. This model describes how three dynamics interact with each other during the learning process. The triadic interplay among one's behavior, the environment, and personal characteristics affects the learning process (Bandura, 2006). The environment sets a cultural stage that frames the learning experience. The environment is created via the use of artifacts in which the individual has imbued meaning. The structures of family, school, neighborhood, and religious affiliations have worked to describe the world to the learner and have set limits and expectations for the learner's future (Bandura, 1994, Cole & Wertsch, 1985). The behaviors of the learner will also impact the learning process; whether the learner is attentive, persistent, skilled, self-disciplined, etc. will impact what can be learned and how difficult the material to be learned may be. Additionally, the learning process is affected by the learner's personal characteristics. The intelligence, emotional state, level of self-efficacy, and thinking habits will interact with the other two dynamics to determine the quality of the learning process. According to Pajares (2002), each of the three dynamics interacts with each other to create the context in which learning takes place (see Figure 1).

The interrelation of these three dynamics illustrates how a learner's cognitive processes create an individualized version of what is valued and can be expected based on one's observations of the environment. These expectations and values work to inform the behaviors of the learner and to impose a structure on how the learner will act. The consequences of the resultant behavior will, in turn, inform and alter both the environment and subsequent behaviors (Pajares, 2002). In other words, "people create social systems, and these systems, in turn, organize and influence peoples' lives" (Bandura, 2006, p. 164). Concepts of self-regulation and self-efficacy are integral factors in the theory of Social Cognition.

Personal Standards for Behavior

Each learner develops a set of personal standards for behavior by utilizing cognitive ability to self-observe, self-judge, and self-evaluate. These personal standards become internalized and are used by the learner to self-regulate (i.e., make choices, create action plans, and construct and adhere to appropriate courses of action). The learner's success at attaining self-regulation and in incorporating a sense of accomplishment into one's perceptions of oneself helps to create a sense of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy (i.e., one's confidence in one's ability to control outcomes) informs the choices people make, levels of persistence, and the courses of action they are willing to pursue(Bryan, Glynn & Kittleson, 2011). It is a powerful influence that often creates a self-fulfilling prophecy of success or failure for the learner. A person with a low level of self-efficacy may shy away from challenging tasks, give up quickly when faced with failure or setbacks, set lower goals and aspirations, dwell on personal attributes that may contribute to lack of success, and experience higher incidences of stress, social isolation, and depression. A person with a high level of self-efficacy will most likely set high goals and aspirations, view setbacks or failures as surmountable by personal skills improvement and perseverance, examine task processes that may contribute to a lack of success, enjoy greater social success, and experience significantly lower levels of stress and depression (Bandura, 1994; Bandura, 2006; Pajares, 2002; Komarraju & Nadler, 2013).

Self efficacy is constructed from both social and individual feedback. A learner's evaluation of personal self-efficacy appears to be derived, in part, from past performance, vicarious learning, social feedback, and one's physiological state. It is fluid; it can be altered by situational factors such as socioeconomic status, educational structures, family structures, and economic conditions (Bandura, 1994). However, it does not always have a basis in reality; a person with a record of low performance may have a high level of self-efficacy. This superficially high level of self-efficacy may aid the person in attaining future success (Pajares, 2002). Dr. Bandura's research found that the level of self-efficacy is a robust predictor of behaviors leading to future success and is independent from actual ability (Bandura & Locke, 2003). Given two students of equal ability, the student with the higher level of self-efficacy will be more successful (Pajares, 2002). People's actions and levels of motivation are based more on what they believe they can do than on what is objectively true (Bandura, 1994). Hence, a person's behavior is better predicted by beliefs about his or her capabilities than by what they are actually judged as capable of accomplishing.

The tenets of Social Cognition support the philosophy that reality is socially constructed. Research suggests that, because social learning is socially situated in the learner's culture, it would be difficult to argue that psychological concepts such as individual success are not socially constructed (Bandura, 2006). Indeed all classroom performance appears to be socially negotiated based upon opportunities made available and constraints imposed upon each student (Rosenholtz & Rosenholtz, 1981).

Model by Dr. Lev Vygotsky

Complimentary to the theory of Social Cognition were the works of Dr. Lev Vygotsky. In contrast to Piagetian theory that children construct knowledge through their actions, he emphasized that learning occurs individually, yet always within societal constructs; that learners are constantly using an interaction between their personal meaning-making activities and their social environment to construct meaning (Cole & Wertsch, 1985). Based on his conclusions, he worked to develop curriculum activities that would enhance classroom learning. Among these ideas were scaffolding, mediated learning, and collaborative learning as they are used in American schools today (McInerney, 2005) to support learning in the social context. Dr. Vygotsky's research strongly supports the position that learning is an accumulation of experiences of the individual within a social culture that has been shaped and defined by prior generations (Cole & Wertsch, 1985). Thus, each person's range of potential for learning and opportunities for success are limited by the social culture in which the learning occurs and is largely controlled by the classroom teacher (McInerney, 2005). This theorizing has led to further work in understanding how both teaching and learning are impacted via cultural constructivism.

Emphasis of Cultural Constructivism

Cultural constructivism emphasizes the wider social, cultural, and historical contexts of learning. It explores the reciprocal interaction of these contexts to construct shared knowledge and emphasizes the importance of language, artifacts, and heritage in the construction of meaning (Cole & Wertsch, 1985). This position has become the basis for calls for social justice within the learning environment - Constructivism asserts that all knowledge is individually constructed, equally valid, and should be honored as such (von Glaserfield, 1995 as cited in McInerney, 2005). It asserts that current scholastic and societal structures limit what is accepted as knowledge and it challenges the notion that Eurocentric perspectives are the only acceptable forms of knowledge. It also challenges the principle that knowledge is fixed and immutable while arguing that homogeneous teaching in a classroom filled with ethnically diverse students actually serves to lower the levels of self-efficacy for children of color (McInerney, 2005).

Further Insights

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is an important concept within the American educational system. Self-efficacy is the belief that one has the power to take actions which will produce desired effects (Bandura & Locke, 2003). High levels of self-efficacy can create capable, confident graduates who are able to succeed in meeting their life goals, or it can support teachers faced with difficult work situations.

Educators at all educational levels affect the self-efficacy of their students. Teachers and professors who conscientiously provide support to students are helping them to develop competencies, self-efficacy and enabling beliefs that will aid them in successfully attaining their future goals (Bandura, 2006). Teachers who utilize classroom differentiation and multidimensional instruction allow students a wider variety of opportunities in which they can experience mastery (Rosenholtz & Rosenholtz, 1981). The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (in the K-12 system) combined with a push toward testing and accountability in the higher education system did not recognize the importance of consciously cultivating high levels of self-efficacy in students and the success of the act was disputed (Liebtag, 2013). Additionally, teachers often neglect to acknowledge differing perspectives and abilities of students from diverse ethnic backgrounds, as well as differences based on gender. These situations may leave students at risk of future failure because their educational experiences did not provide adequate supports toward the attainment of self-efficacy. Enhanced self-efficacy may provide teachers the resilience needed to continue to work with difficult students or classroom situations. It could increase over-all morale at the schools as teachers find themselves less stressed or socially isolated. Teachers with high levels of self-efficacy would also be more willing to examine processes and personal skills when faced with failures or setbacks. Teacher efficacy, school/classroom efficacy, and collective efficacy are the topics most commonly discussed in today's practitioner journals (McInerney, 2005).

Reciprocal Determinism

Teachers and professors can examine how Reciprocal Determinism is playing out in their classrooms and consider changes to any of the three categories. Reciprocal Determinism They may elect to correct self-beliefs or personal thinking habits, improve their self-regulatory classroom practices, or alter existing structures within the school that appear to be undermining student successes.

Social Modeling

Social modeling, in the form of mentoring programs, can be used to bridge the gap between high school and college for students who come from low income homes. Students can learn what college attendance looks like, can be encouraged to envision themselves living and succeeding in the higher education environment, and can participate in experiences that could increase their levels of self-efficacy and their sense of human agency.

Motivation

The theory of Social Cognition has greatly informed theories of motivation during the past two decades. Unfortunately the majority of this theory has not been incorporated into daily classroom instruction. Despite considerable research suggesting a Social Cognition frame would greatly enhance learning and motivation in the classroom, the current American public school structure has not successfully incorporated the following practices into the classroom:

* Emphasis should be on master goals rather than performance goals

* Students should be encouraged to be active participants in their learning

* Feelings of personal worth should be purposefully cultivated in the classroom as they are directly related to learning and achievement

* Effective learning and motivation starts with self-determination and the presence of choices for students

* Students should be carefully taught that effort and skills attribute to success and failure - rather than causes such as luck

* Expectations for achievement and the valuing of success must be carefully cultivated in the classroom as it is closely correlated to academic success

These suggestions do not intersect well with traditional ways of teaching. School curriculum and teacher training have been traditionally grounded in teacher-driven learning with assessment emphasizing performance goals. Schools need to be reinvented if they are to become places of success for all students (McInerney, 2005).

Issues

Social Cognitive theory was a prominent school of thought in the 1980s. Research and discussions regarding the positive effects of modeling was at the forefront of pedagogical theory. However, the precepts introduced in Social Cognition have been difficult to implement in American public schools, given current classroom structure and the policy foci of their governing bodies. Public policy such as No Child Left Behind creates curriculum requirements that do not leave adequate time to focus on the psychological well-being of most students. Studies suggest that leaving these needs unmet does not support the student in attaining future success. The purpose and goals of education need to be further discussed by educational leaders and policy-makers to determine how instructional formats could be revised to support all students in acquiring knowledge and skills while also gaining a high level of self-efficacy.

Terms & Concepts

Cognition: The thinking processes involved in the acquisition, organization and use of information (Bandura, 1994).

Collaborative Learning: A teaching strategy wherein the teacher groups or pairs students to work together for the purpose of achieving an academic goal (Gokhale, 1995).

Introspection: A self-reflective process in which people explore their own cognitions and beliefs as they try to make sense of their personal behaviors (Pajares, 2002).

Mediated Learning: The teacher, or another adult, inserts herself between the learner and the instructional material with intent of assisting the student in extracting information from the instructional material and aiding the student in making connections between the material and other content areas (Kozulen & Presseisen, 1995).

Reciprocal Determinism: The view that the environment, personal behavior, and personal factors of cognition and self-efficacy are interrelated in the learning process (Bandura, 2006).

Scaffolding: A teaching strategy in which the teacher provides close attention and lots of feedback and assistance to a learner at the beginning of a learning event and then slowly backs off; allowing the learner more freedom as levels of mastery and self-efficacy rise (McInerney, 2005).

Self-Efficacy: A person's beliefs regarding whether one has the power to create change with personal actions (Bandura, 1994).

Self-Reflection: The metacognitive ability to reflect upon oneself and the adequacy of one's thoughts and actions (Bandura, 2006).

Self-Regulation: Exercise of influence over one's own motivation, thought processes, emotional states, and patterns of behavior (Bandura, 1994).

Vicarious Learning: People are capable of learning a new behavior by observing the actions of other people and the consequences of those actions (Pajares, 2002).

Bibliography

Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Human Behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 71-81). New York: Academic Press.

Bandura A. (2006). Toward a Psychology of Human Agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1 , 164-180.

Bandura, A. & Locke, E. A. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goal effects revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88 , 87-99.

Bryan, R. R., Glynn, S. M., & Kittleson, J. M. (2011). Motivation, achievement, and advanced placement intent of high school students learning science. Science Education, 95, 1049-1065. Retrieved on December 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=66182674&site=ehost-live

Cole, M. & Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Beyond the individual-social antimony in discussions of Piaget and Vygotsky. Retrieved June 5, 2007, from http://www.massey.ac.nz/~alock/virtual/ colevyg.htm

Gokhale, A. A. (1995). Collaborative learning enhances critical thinking. Journal of Technology Education, 7 .

Hartman, H. (1996). Social Learning Theory. Retrieved June 20, 2007, from http://www.candor.admin.ccny.cuny.edu

Komarraju, M., & Nadler, D. (2013). Self-efficacy and academic achievement: Why do implicit beliefs, goals, and effort regulation matter?. Learning & Individual Differences, 2567-72. Retrieved on December 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89204559&site=ehost-live

Kozulen, A. & Presseisen, B. Z. (1995). Mediated learning experience and psychological tools: Vygotsky's and Feuerstein's perspectives in a study of student learning. Educational Psychologist, 30 , 67-75.

Liebtag, E. (2013). Moving forward with Common Core State Standards implementation: Possibilities and potential problems. Journal of Curriculum & Instruction, 7, 56-70. Retrieved on December 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http:// search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=92612449&site=ehost-live

McInerney, D. M. (2005). Educational psychology - theory, research, and teaching: A 25-year retrospective. Educational Psychology, 25 , 585-599.

Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retrieved June 5, 2007, from http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html

Rosenholtz, S.J. & Rosenholtz, S.H. (1981). Classroom organization and the perception of ability. Sociology of Education, 54, 132-140.

Suggested Reading

Bassi, M., Steca, P., Fave, A. D., & Caprara, G. V. (2007). Academic self-efficacy beliefs and quality of experience in learning. Journal of Youth & Adolesence, 36 , 301-312.

Nadge, A. (2002, September). From research to reality: Enhancing learning and psycho-social development. Pastoral Care in Education, 20 , 3-11.

Pajares, F. (2003). Self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement in writing: A review of the literature. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 19, 139-158.

Yost, D. S. (2006). Reflection and self-efficacy: Enhancing the retention of qualified teachers from a teacher education perspective. Teacher Education Quarterly, 33 , 59-76.