Social Work and Social Service Providers

Social work is one of the broadest fields in social and human services. The primary theoretical foundation that drives social work is that of developing appropriate interventions. Historically, the focus of interventions has changed due to different theoretical orientations. In order to practice social work, an individual must earn at least a bachelor's degree. Social workers serve in a wide range of capacities, including clinical counselors, professionals in social agencies, child welfare workers, and many other areas of human services.

Sociology & Related Fields

Overview

Social workers are an invaluable part of the social services landscape. They serve in child welfare agencies, mental health services, government services and private practice. However, it is a long road to become a professional social worker. The very basic requirement is a four-year bachelor's of social work (BSW). Beyond that, the field generally requires a masters of social work (MSW) to serve in a position of authority or responsibility. In order to earn licensure as a licensed clinical social worker (LCSW), an individual must be over twenty-one and have approximately three thousand hours of postgraduate work in the field. These hours must be supervised by a registered clinical social worker. Once the hours are complete, he or she applies to the state examination board to take the licensing examination. Each state has specific requirements for their social workers to maintain licensure (just as they do with doctors or physical therapists). Extensive information on licensure is available from the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) at http://www.socialworkers.org/

Social Work Theory

The primary theoretical foundation that drives social work is that of developing appropriate interventions. Historically, the focus of interventions has changed due to different theoretical orientations. According to Johnsson & Svensson (2005), some of the theories that have informed social work include

* Psychodynamic theory,

* Cognitive-behavioural theories,

* System theory,

* Social psychological theories, such as different communication models,

* Sociological theories, such as radical and Marxist perspectives,

* Empowerment and advocacy and feminist theories (Johnsson & Svensson, 2005, p. 423).

Social work theory has examined the different reasons for social problems. Some of the reasons they have proposed include structural problems—that is, that social conditions lead to social problems. Psychological theories have provided an impetus to consider the ways in which people interact as a focus of social unrest. This is a far more individualistic approach and looks more at individuals and the ways in which they take or do not take responsibility in their lives. At the heart of social work, however, is the desire to try and alleviate the social problems faced by many vulnerable people in society. These include abused children, seniors, victims of domestic abuse, people who live in poverty, and persons with disabilities.

The modern approach to social work theory is changing and moving towards something called "evidence-based practice." Johnsson and Svensson (2005) state:

One of the main discussions in social work today is about evidence-based practice and the connection between research and practice in social work. This connection is often discussed both as a practical question regarding how it should be done and as a theoretical question regarding how it should be understood (p. 421).

There are some who suggest that even with this evolution towards evidence-based work, social work is not a field that is based on theory. Their assertion is that social work is a practical endeavor that is focused on changing the situation in which people or organizations find themselves (Johnsson & Svensson, 2005). Lam (2004) disagrees. She suggests that students in social work often find themselves in extremely vulnerable and difficult situations and therefore try to focus on the practical rather than the theoretical. This often gives the wrong impression that there is no social work theory to ground their work. Her argument is that social work theory is actually highly complex, and this makes it difficult for students to retain all of this information and be effective in the field on a practical level. "Even if students retain different theories well, the selection and retrieval of these theories from a whole pool of knowledge is not a simple exercise" (Lam, 2004, p. 373).

Teaching Social Work Theory

Voss (2004) has conducted research into a relatively new area of social work—teaching sensitivity in a cross-cultural perspective utilizing alternative and complementary techniques. His focus has been on understanding people from within their own cultural framework and perceptions. This empowers social workers to utilize techniques that come from within the person's cultural perspective and not from the perspective of the cultural background of the social worker. He has found that challenging students' perceptions of different cultures can be uncomfortable work for some students. Nevertheless, he believes it opens their minds to new ways of practicing their profession:

The last example I would like to share is something that I have found useful while teaching race relations, a core diversity course in the undergraduate social work curriculum and an interdisciplinary course, which draws mixed majors from across the university. Invariably, I have found my students confronting an energetic lull or deadzone midway through the course. (Voss, 2004, p. 23)

Theory in social work provides a means of understanding social structure, social processes and the ways in which people and organizations interact and connect with the larger society. For example, Johnsson and Svensson (2005) discuss the relationship of poverty to society:

All social processes occur on more than one level… poverty that leads to malnutrition and lack of skills, which leads to marginalisation, which leads to unemployment, which leads to poverty and so on. In that perspective, poverty is a complex process where factors on different levels have to be taken into account. (p. 422-423)

The Roots of Social Work

There is research to suggest that social work has its roots in Victorian society. Nineteenth-century England was, in many ways, a very progressive place. There were advances in medicine, new technologies were being invented, and the notion of "comforting others" became one of the principles of Victorian England. Webb (2007a) states:

My contention is that certain key ideas emerge from this period that still form the background horizons of our moral, scientific and practical experiences in social work. The call to improve ordinary life and encourage self reliance, for instance, as well as the ideals of benevolence and compassion took root in late Victorian England with social work being a key vehicle of transmission. (p. 41)

To a large degree, Victorian society was the beginning of what we often term "modernity. " It was also a society of great contrasts. While there were many wealthy people, there were also many who were very poor. The beginnings of an industrial society also brought great anxieties. Many people were forced out of the countryside in order to find work in large urban centers. This changed the fabric of the British family, and as such many found themselves having to work in factories for long hours and very little pay. These kinds of changes created some of the social problems we still see today—people feeling estranged from their work, familial disruption, difficulties with raising children, and concern over helping the poor and people with disabilities and illnesses. Charitable organizations were established to assist the disenfranchised:

Charitable activities were thus caught up in the dislocating effects of modernization. This is why a key emphasis was on the demarcation of the casual poor [those who work sometimes and not at others] and the fluctuating circumstances of poverty surrounding their disorderly lifestyle. (Webb, 2007a, p. 43)

In the late nineteenth century, a British social worker by the name of Octavia Hill became an important influence on the development of the field. Hill worked with people who would have been considered outcasts by many others—-those who were unemployed, homeless and thought to have no skills and therefore no ability to contribute to society. She was especially devoted to several housing projects which provided secure homes for people who would otherwise be homeless. "The work of Octavia Hill also underlines the preoccupation with home and dwellings by early social workers" (Webb, 2007b, p. 195).

Van Wormer (2002) points out that the early part of the twentieth century was a vibrant time in social work history. In particular, three reformers proved to be extremely important to the practice of social work. Alice Salomon of Germany, Eileen Younghusband of England, and Edith Abbott of the United States are considered to be three of the pioneers. In particular, they held an "international perspective," which meant that they believed social work had the potential to move beyond specific geographical boundaries, a premise that continues to hold true today. Social workers were dedicated to social reform and not just helping individuals or groups of people who were vulnerable in society. In today's perspective, this would be considered global awareness:

Everything is connected: future to the past, the parts to the whole, the biological to the social, the inner to the outer (body, mind, etc.), personal to political, the local to the global. The future of potential social work lies in our grasping the essence of this awareness. (van Wormer, 2002, p. 34)

Social work continued to evolve throughout the twentieth century adapting the social issues prevalent at the time. Periods such as the Great Depression highlighted the need for social workers and education and organization continued to evolve (Simmons University, 2023).

Applications

Social Worker Qualifications

In order to practice as a professional social worker , one must earn at least an MSW (masters of social work) and then spend two years in post-graduate work under the supervision of a licensed clinical social worker (LCSW). To become a LCSW, one must pass a licensing examination. However, this also implies that one must maintain licensure, and in order to do that, social workers must always participate in continuing education to upgrade their knowledge and skills. Some might suggest that this is too rigorous, but others feel it is not rigorous enough. There are those within the field who feel that the practice must raise its standards in order to prove itself a worthy profession. Harrington (2006) writes, "There is a classic lament often made within the ranks, however, that social work needs to do more to develop its professional scholarship" (p. 91).

A primary issue with respect to qualifications is the broad arena in which social work is practiced. Efforts take place on the local, regional, national, and international levels. Therefore, some might suggest that depending on where the social worker is employed, they should have to meet different standards and qualifications. Marsh & Triseliotis state, "This takes us back to the need for practitioners to be thoroughly steeped in their own discipline. It simply is not enough to be qualified and then well-versed in agency policy and practice" (as cited in Skinner & Whyte, 2004, p. 368).

Research

Another key to improving upon and raising the standards of social work is research; both quantitative and qualitative. Research is one of the keys to the strength of any academic discipline. It provides for in-depth studies on the subjects which are crucial to the understanding and development of the field:

Research is an essential response to developing strategies in settings in which social work required to act and passing the learning on to another generation of practitioners. It can be applied to evaluate programmes and test theory and to explore the many narratives that make up the voices contingent on practice. (Harington, 2006, p. 92)

Clinical & Direct Practice

Some of the main responsibilities of social workers are listed in Table 1:

Table 1: Some of the Responsibilities and Settings for Social Work.

Assessment and diagnosis Case management Clinical supervision Counseling or psychotherapy Psychoanalysis Crisis intervention Family therapy/family interventions Group therapy or other group work Child welfare Adoption Child abuse Foster care Disability services Domestic violence intervention Family planning Medical social work Employee assistance programs Forensic social work School social worker Substance abuse Aging or gerontology Nursing homes and hospices Anti-poverty advocate Housing and homelessness violence prevention Person centered planning Play therapy Psychosocial and psycho-educational interventions Relationship counseling and interpersonal counseling Relationship education Immigrant and refugee services and supports Anti-racism Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender support Grief counseling Trauma support

The practice of social work is so diverse that trained social workers have an enormous range of opportunities from which to choose. Yet, social work is also one of the most emotionally taxing professions in our modern world. Workers often serve in some of the most difficult environments, such as dealing with domestic violence, child abuse, and sexual assault / trauma. Social workers are trained to separate their own personal feelings and experiences from those of their clients. Still, their jobs are often stressful, and there is a high rate of burn-out in the social work profession.

One of the most delicate areas of social work practice is trauma. Social workers are often called on to work in abusive and difficult situations. Clemans (2008), a social worker, writes that although this work can be emotionally taxing and sometimes makes us question our faith in humanity, the opposite is also true:

As awful as trauma can be, for the client, for the student, for the social worker, as many times as I shake my head in disbelief at the atrocities humans inflict on each other, I have just as many stories of people surviving abusive situations, thriving, and finding lost voices, jeopardized spirits, buried strengths. (Clemans, 2008, p. 238)

Another area that has made a profound impact on social work was the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). This pioneering piece of legislation provided the foundation for greater integration and independence for persons with disabilities. The legislation is primarily based on the "minority model," which sees "disability" as a barrier to full participation in society and not located in the person's body. Social workers serve as important mediators between employers and persons with disabilities who have traditionally faced huge barriers to employment, such as persons with psychiatric disabilities. Social workers have the knowledge and expertise to assist with integration strategies and techniques (O'Brien & Ellegood, 2005).

Social Workers as Advocates

Social work has its roots in charitable work, but this also implies, at least to some degree, that they serve as social advocates. The early foundations of social work provided a voice for people who were voiceless in society: "Whether translating research findings for public consumption, or arguing for a policy position that reflects social work values, social workers engaged in cause advocacy need rhetorical skill" (Lens, 2005, p. 231).

Given that the world is now dealing with issues such as the global economy and globalization, social workers are faced with issues they have never dealt with before. Huge numbers of people are moving through and across borders, but not always in a positive pattern. For example, two of the most horrific effects of globalization are human trafficking and child labor (Polack, 2004). Modern warfare is far more complex, and survivors of campaigns such as Desert Storm and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan often leave veterans with highly complicated emotional and physical scars.

While we often sit back and marvel at our technological innovations, modern society is also extremely stressful, and many people cannot cope. Divorce rates are high, millions of people are unemployed, there are hundreds of thousands of homeless children and youth who make a living in the sex industry. Modern society often exacts a heavy toll on many of us - both those who are successful in life and those who are not. The latter feel the constant pressure to keep producing results at their work, and those without jobs feel a sense of utter hopelessness (Gorin, 2007).

Social workers are often the people who come to the rescue of others. They work in a multiplicity of roles and provide outreach, comfort, support, compassion, and a helping hand. They make it possible for people to negotiate the justice system, understand criminal charges, deal with immigration issues, and find a place to stay when home is unsafe. They are often the unsung heroes of social advocacy in our society. This is a difficult and often emotionally-taxing role. In addition to their already complex roles, social workers often serve as advocates for new policies, procedures, and laws to protect the most vulnerable in society. In many ways, social work serves as a compass for the moral values of our society. "There are many forums for cause advocacy. Social workers can testify at a public hearing, lobby public officials, answer questions posed by a reporter, or make presentations to a community organization" (Lens, 2005, p. 231).

Conclusion

Social work is an extremely complex and highly diverse field of practice. This brief review merely touches on the surface of what social workers do and the history of their field. The field of social work trains professionals to work in a wide range of roles, but they usually work with persons who are the most vulnerable in society. They intercede on behalf of persons who cannot advocate for or help themselves. Thus, they perform an extremely important role in society. Social workers can also be highly specialized, just as doctors are. They can focus on criminal work, the justice system, the correctional system, social welfare, working with children, etc. They have a wide choice of roles and positions open to them, especially in today's modern society.

Terms & Concepts

Child Welfare Worker: Describes someone who works for government-run services designed to protect children and encourage family stability.

Clinical Supervision: A type of counseling supervision in which the practitioner meets regularly with another professional with supervisory training to discuss and mentor current cases.

Diagnosis: The identification, by process of elimination, of the nature of an affliction or illness.

Forensic Social Work: A branch of social work in criminal and civil law settings. Forensic social workers are employed in psychiatric hospitals, state and municipal agencies, and often by law enforcement departments.

Interpersonal Counseling: Usually a short-term, interpersonal process of helping fundamentally psychologically healthy people resolve situational issues.

Medical Social Work: A sub-discipline of social work in which practitioners work in a hospital, skilled nursing facility, or hospice with patients and their families in need of psychosocial help, intervening as necessary.

Person-Centered Planning: A process that assists patients in making plans for their futures. It is a life planning strategy to enable people with disabilities to increase their personal self-determination and improve independence.

Bibliography

Clemans, S. E. (2008). Trauma and group work: Thoughts on delicate practice. Journal of Jewish Communal Service, 83 (2/3), 238-244. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with FullText: http:// search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&A N=31979058&site=ehost-live

The Evolution of Social Work: Historical Milestones. (2023). Simmons University. Retrieved May 31, 2023, from https://online.simmons.edu/blog/ev

Gorin, S. H. (2000). Inequality and health: Implications for social work. Health and Social Work, 25 , 270-275. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with FullText: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=4232184&site=eh ost-live

Harrington, P. (2006). Practitioner scholarship and civic literacy; Will registration lift the game? Social Work Review, 18 , 90-99. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with FullText: http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=2415 9738&site=ehost-live

Johnsson, E., & Svensson, K. (2005). Theory in social work/ some reflections on understanding and explaining interventions. European Journal of Social Work, 8 , 419-433. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with FullText: http://search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=18739435&site =ehost-live

Lam, D. (2004). Problem-based learning: An integration of theory and field. Journal of Social Work Education, 40 , 371-389. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search. ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=155 94574&site=ehost-live

Lens, V. (2005). Advocacy and argumentation in the public arena: A guide for social workers. Social Work, 50 , 231-238. Retrieved August 28, 2008, from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=18141337 &site=ehost-live

Maschi, T., Baer, J., & Turner, S. G. (2011). The psychological goods on clinical social work: a content analysis of the clinical social work and social justice literature. Journal Of Social Work Practice, 25, 233-253. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ssf&AN=60651421

Mizrahi, T., & Dodd, S. (2013). MSW students' perspectives on social work goals and social activism before and after completing graduate education. Journal Of Social Work Education, 49, 580-600. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ss f&AN=90595317

Polack, R. J. (2004). Social justice and the global economy: New challenges for social work in the 21st century. Social Work, 49 , 281-290. Retrieved August 28, 2008, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a 9h&AN=12860551&site=ehost-live

O'Brien, G., & Ellegood, C. (2005). The Americans with Disabilities Act: A decision tree for social services administrators. Social Work, 50 , 271-279. -Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=aph&AN=18141364&site=ehost-live

Skinner, K., & Whyte, B. (2004). Going beyond training: Theory and practice in managing learning. Social Work Education, 23 , 365-381. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a ph&AN=13929241&site=ehost-live

Van Wormer, K.A. (2002). Our social work imagination: How social work has not abandoned its mission. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 22 (3/4), 21-37. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.asp x?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24824660&site=ehost-live

Voss, R.W. (2004). Reclaiming our mojo: Challenging the notion of nontraditional versus conventional methods in social work practice. The Journal of Baccalaureate Social Work, 10 12-27. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with FullText: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&A N=14953807&site=ehost-live

Webb, S. A. (2007a). The comfort of strangers: social work, modernity and late Victorian England Part I. European Journal of Social Work, 10 , 39-54. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with FullText: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=sih&AN=24162758&site=ehost-live

Webb, S. A. (2007b). The comfort of strangers: social work, modernity and late Victorian England Part II. European Journal of Social Work, 10 , 193-207. Retrieved August 28, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with FullText: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=sih&AN=25347082&site=ehost-live

Wells, M., Maschi, T., & Slater, G. (2012). Integration of research and practice: Innovations and challenges in social work programs. Social Work Education, 31, 331-346. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ssf&AN=72091071

Suggested Reading

Adams, R. (2008). Empowerment, participation and social work. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave MacMillan.

Banks, Sara. (2008). Ethics and values in social work. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave MacMillan.

Burke, P., & Parker, J. (2006). Social work and disadvantage: Addressing the roots of stigma through association. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Dominelli, L. (2008). Anti-racist social work. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave MacMillan. Figueira-McDonough, J. (2006). The welfare state and social work: Pursuing social justice. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Gibbs, A., & Stirling, B. (2013). 'It's about people and their environment': Student social workers' definitions of social work research. Social Work Education, 32, 317-330. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ssf&AN=86153875

Glicken, M. D. (2006). Social work in the 21st century: An introduction to social welfare, social issues, and the profession. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.

Martin, E., & Pyles, L. (2013). Social work in the engaged university. Journal Of Social Work Education, 49, 635-645. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ssf&AN=90595325