Sociometer Theory

Abstract

Sociometer theory, also known as sociometry, is a quantitative method to measure social relations in group situations, developed in the 1920s by psychotherapist Jacob Levy Moreno. In contemporary sociometer theory, self-esteem functions as a sociometer, that is, the meter or gauge used to measure interpersonal relationships. Evolutionary psychologists further developed sociometer theory, arguing that self-esteem was developed in humans to detect levels of social inclusion or exclusion, as an important strategy for survival.

Overview

The terms sociometry and sociometer originate from the Latin term socius, which means "social" and metrum, which refers to measurement. The founder of sociometer theory, Jacob Levy Moreno (1889-1974), was a pathbreaking American psychotherapist who also founded the concept of psychodrama, a form of expressive therapy in the 1920s. Psychodrama is an innovative method of psychotherapy that emphasized dramatic practices, such as improvisation, performance. and re-enactment of personal experiences. Sociometry consisted in observing and charting the interactions of individuals in groups. The original purpose of sociometry was to use sociometers to measure these interactions, as a gauge used in group therapy, and Moreno used it initially to conduct and measures studies of group interactions in prisons and schools.

Upon designing his psychodrama system, Moreno combined sociometry with expressive therapy and the Greek concept of "catharsis," in which patients performed scenes that represented their traumas and conflicts. Originally, in ancient Greece, catharsis referred to the idea of a purge or purification. It would later mean the changes experienced by an individual after experiencing rapture or great trauma. In a performance a catharsis occurs as the consequence of intense emotions, such as grief or anger. According to Aristotle, cathartic experiences, an important element of Greek tragedies, portrayed actors freeing themselves of toxic passions in order to cleanse their spirit. In Moreno's version of catharsis, a patient would perform scenes under the directions of the therapist. At all points, however, group interactions and being able to understand them were an important part of this theory.

Sociometry expanded as Moreno disseminated his theories far and wide. He founded sanatoriums and hospitals, as well as organizations to promote his theories. He published three journals that promoted sociometry titled Impromptu, Sociometry: A Journal of Interpersonal Relations, and in the late 1940s, Group Psychotherapy. In 1929, he founded a theater group at Carnegie Hall dedicated to impromptu—spontaneous—theater, and he also later founded the New York Theater of Psychodrama. Moreno continued to be prolific all his life, an indefatigable promoter of sociometry and his methods of group psychotherapy.

While Moreno was applauded and admired as an innovator by many, his therapies were viewed with mistrust by other professionals in the fields of psychiatry and psychology. After Moreno's death in 1974, his therapies lost much of their prevalence, although they continued to be used in group therapy. Meanwhile, sociometry found applications in diverse fields of the social sciences, as its techniques were found to be useful in studying and representing graphically the connections between small groups.

In 1995, Neuroscientist Mark R. Leary published his work "Self-Esteem as an Interpersonal Monitor: The Sociometer Hypothesis," in which he built upon Moreno's theory to propose that human beings had developed a gauge or "sociometer" for evolutionary purposes, as a sort of survival mechanism. The function of a sociometer, mainly the psychological phenomenon of self-esteem, is measuring the extent to which others value and welcome one as a group member. Furthermore, Leary argued that self-esteem appears to have the evolutionary purpose of detecting both real or perceived changes in the person's "inclusionary status"—the extent to which he or she is accepted and valued in the group. In short, self-esteem is a sociometer—a measurer of social phenomena—designed to detect detrimental or negative changes in an individual's group status. The need to maintain self-esteem motivates people to act in ways that maintain and strengthen their connections to others, in this manner strengthening group cohesion.

Applications

Contemporary sociometry can be applied to a wide variety of disciplines such as sociology, psychology, organizational diagnostics, and education. However, the sociometer theory and test, an instrument developed to measure and analyze group interactions, is most commonly used in organizational and school settings. In that sense, it is applied to understanding the internal social structure and dynamics of student groups.

In a school setting, for instance, it is useful to detect situations of social inadaptation, identifying those individuals who are isolated from the group, not selected by anybody, so that teachers or other adults may intervene and ensure that others take the isolated individual into account. If a student is rejected by a majority of the group, teachers or managers may identify who the group leaders are, examine the causes for marginalization, and talk to the group leaders to gain their collaboration. Sociometer theory is also useful to select methodological strategies for the classroom or be able to offer personal and professional guidance to group members in a team or organization.

To make accurate assessments of personal interactions in a group, researchers need to gather concrete data designed so that, in the aggregate, it helps gain a more rounded understanding of the phenomena observed. That is the main goal of a sociometry framework. To capture the necessary information, a sociometric study or test focuses on the following goals:

• Understanding the level of acceptance of an individual within his or her group.
• Understanding the depth of cohesion between the factors of small and large groupings, or groups and subgroups. That is, the extent to which these are properly integrated or if they are fragmented or isolated from each other.
• Identifying group members that may be marginalized by others in the group. The status of a person inside a group is known as "sociometric status."
• Identifying the group leaders, who serve as the "uniters" for the others in the group. Identifying the repercussions or impact this person has on the group and if these are positive or negative.
• Identifying isolated or neutral individuals who do not participate in any way. They can be observed to determine their level of integration with the group.
• Observe the outcomes related to the integration of new members into the group and the level of acceptance of outliers of the group, that is, those members who may be different from the mainstream or norm.
• Identifying the influence of some specific elements such as gender, age, or race in the elections or rejections of other members of the group.
• Applying the data gathered to a working strategy, ensuring that the methodology used is appropriate for the desired outcomes.

The data obtained through a sociometric test, is followed by a careful review of group dynamics and self-esteem reports, and in many cases, a psychogram is created to illustrate the findings. Sociometry, then, may prove useful to researchers who may then apply their findings in an effective manner and improve social interactions and group cohesion. Moreover, it can also be used, at an individual level, to help group members individually, so that all may develop the best aspects of their personality in relation to others and improve group productivity overall.

Among the strategies that experts may use to improve group relations is talking with group leaders to help them understand the importance of open and accepting interactions between group members. To help group members who may have been marginalized or rejected, it is important to first identify the reasons for his or her isolation and work to ameliorate these, by recruiting the help of mediators such as a counselor, doctor, social worker. The idea is to have all people in a classroom or a team work as a group and ensure no group dynamics may lead to overt or subtle hostility and rejection. The emotional harm of group rejection is immeasurable, since acceptance by relevant social groups is of paramount importance to the psychological well-being of people.

To promote a welcoming and well-integrated environment, experts can measure the structure and dynamics of the group by using the sociometric system. Once a well-integrated social environment has been reached, as much research shows, group collaboration and productivity will increase. From a measurable standpoint, sociometry is used to make the initial diagnosis that will provide the baseline necessary to measure the advances of any group intervention established to improve interpersonal relations. Sociometer theory also provides instruments to prevent exclusion before it goes too far. With the application of complex mathematical formulas, sociometry helps users forecast the probabilities of who will be selected to join a group and who will be left out.

Moreno distinguished between what he termed "cold sociometry" and "hot sociometry." For Moreno, cold sociometry was a quantifying and empirical exercise not always used for the application of outcomes to group modification. Hot sociometry, on the other hand, was meant to be used specifically for therapeutic purposes. Sociometer theory is used in counseling, often for psychological therapy in cases of self-esteem. Modern sociometer theory posits that individuals have a basic need to belong, that is, they are inherently motivated to be part of a group and to feel accepted and valued. Self-esteem is linked to how much one is esteemed and valued by the group. Sociometer theory divides self-esteem into two functional groups: state self-esteem (short-term feelings of self-worth) and trait self-esteem, (long-term or enduring sense of self-worth).

Trait self-esteem is also related to relational value, which refers to self-perceptions of how much one is valued and liked by significant others. Psychologist Abraham Maslow defined it simply as "the need to belong." State self-esteem copes with the immediate situation and acceptance or rejection in the moment, whereas trait self-esteem monitors the value of long-term interactions and relations. These group interactions and perceptions provide an individual with cues and information about their acceptance or rejection by others and serves either to support or to erode the self-esteem and expectations for future situations.

These perceptions and expectations are also affected by social feedback. Individuals constantly assess if the feedback received is consistent with their self-regard. A fracture or gap between the feedback received from the group and the self-esteem and self-perception of a person, usually leads to uncertainty and confusion, and often, to adjusting his or her self-esteem to fit the feedback received. For instance, positive feedback would enhance a person's feelings of self-worth and self-esteem. On the other hand, negative feedback or rejection might lead a person to recast feelings of self-esteem to fit negative feedback, which would in term lead to feelings of inadequacy and depression.

Because group interactions occur across a wide variety of fields, it is easy to see why sociometer theory would have a wide range of applications. Sociometer theory can help educators, managers, and others in a group leadership position, predict the changes that may occur based on the type of social feedback group members typically receive. Much research shows, for instance, that children who experience peer conflict and a decrease in peer support, also experience a decrease in self-esteem. This may impact negatively his or her performance across different domains, from academic to sports. However, self-esteem changes correlating to positive changes in feedback or approval from their peers, leads to increases in self-esteem, as well as personal and group productivity.

Issues

Because sociometer theory and its test model are mostly quantitatively based, these studies are not able to explain the impact or depth between dynamics such as expected social acceptance, and what is actually perceived by the actors involved. In other words, it cannot measure the subjective experiences of the people monitored in the studies. Although some experts contend that sociometer effects are universal, others disagree. They argue, for instance, that the self-esteem of some people is significantly more sensitive to the group context and other social cues, than that of others. People may have a stronger neuroticism trait than others, be more sensitive to stress, and be likelier to be affected more profoundly than those who do not have those personality traits. On the other hand, some people are more resilient, that is, more flexible across contexts and better able to withstand stress, conflict, and rejection. Moreover, differences in socialization due to gender, culture, age, and social class should also be considered. Sociometer theory, then, presents limitations in measuring these discrepancies—in fact, in its most basic form, it does not account for them.

Critics have also pointed out that the data obtained is quantitative, therefore does not manifest the depth of the feelings expressed by the subjects, nor do they guarantee the veracity of their answers. They also cannot describe the relationships and interactions that students have in domains outside of the group or with the subjectivity of group members beyond the overt social interactions with the group. A sociometric test cannot let researchers know why one individual selects to join a group nor his or her levels of self-esteem prior to joining. Finally, the test provides information that may help with decision-making once interpreted, but does not point toward solutions.

Phenomena that focus on emotions, feelings, culture, gender, and so on, refer to what is known as qualitative data. As opposed to quantitative data, which refers to all that can be measured numerically and counted, qualitative data is that information which, no less important than numbers, cannot be quantified or expressed numerically. Qualitative information describes factors such as emotions and wellbeing, beliefs, subjectivities related to gender, physical traits, and other. However, measuring is a crucial factor in studies, and often qualitative studies also require the ability to quantify; therefore, a quantitative study may be complemented with qualitative data and vice-versa.

Qualitative data is valuable because it complements quantitative data; it can add depth to and enrich purely numerical or statistical information because its purpose is to describe. Quantitative information may tell us the number of times a person was included in a group activity, but not what the individuals involved were experiencing. For example, whether everybody felt at ease, or whether group had a mix of genders and races.

Other limitations relate to the structure and relevance of some parts of the sociometric test. For instance, a sociogram—the chart or graph that depicts the group's interrelations—does not remain the same throughout time. It will change, mainly because people's preferences change, especially if it is applied to a young population. Also, the section that follows the sociogram in the sociometer test is the psychogram. A psychogram diagrams the mental functions and personality of an individual based on his or her responses to the tests. One of the elements of a psychogram is the Rorscharch test, a psychiatric assessment based on people interpreting what they see in a series of ink blots. Psychograms are rarely used nowadays in fields outside psychology. In fact, even Rorscharch tests, once very popular, are gradually falling into disuse.

Terms & Concepts

Evolutionary Psychology: Field of psychology that focuses on identifying behavioral and cognitive traits linked to natural adaptation and survival.

Feedback: Information used for improvement, based on reactions or commentary about the performance of a product or person in a concrete situation.

Relational Value: The extent to which one is valued and liked by significant others. Many consider it as the core element of self-esteem.

Rorscharch Test: Also known as Rorscharch Inkblot Test. A controversial test based on having a patient interpret inkblot stains.

Sociometer Theory: One of the most important self-esteem theories, serves to measure self-esteem in relation to interpersonal relationships or group interactions.

Self-esteem: A person's assessment of his or her own worth. It is one of the most powerful psychological constructs. May also be called self-respect, self-worth, and self-regard.

Subjective: Largely directed by personal emotions and intuitions, rather than more distant or objective analysis.

Bibliography

Bale, C., & Archer, J. (2013). Self-perceived attractiveness, romantic desirability and self-esteem: A mating sociometer perspective. Evolutionary Psychology, 11(1), 68–84.

Jiang, T., Geng, L., Tang, Y., & Ye, L. (2016). The implicit sociometer effect and the moderating role of relational self-construal. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 57(6), 601–606.

Kavanagh, P. P., Fletcher, G. O., & Ellis, B. J. (2014). The mating sociometer and attractive others: A double-edged sword in romantic relationships. Journal of Social Psychology, 154(2), 126–141. Retrieved January 1, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=94420408&site=ehost-live

Peng, A. C., & Zeng, W. (2017). Workplace ostracism and deviant and helping behaviors: The moderating role of 360 degree feedback. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 38(6), 833–855.

Poorthuis, A. G., Thomaes, S., Aken, M. G., Denissen, J. A., & Orobio de Castro, B. (2014). Dashed hopes, dashed selves? A sociometer perspective on self-esteem change across the transition to secondary school. Social Development, 23(4), 770–783. Retrieved December 22, 2017 from EBSCO Sociology Source Ultimate http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=98581484&site=ehost-live

Reitz, A. K., Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2016). Me, us, and them: Testing sociometer theory in a socially diverse real-life context. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 110(6), 908–920. Retrieved January 1, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=116192982&site=ehost-live

Rouse, S. V. (2012). Universal worth: Construct and scale development. Journal of Personality Assessment, 94(1), 62–72.

Suggested Reading

Bernhardt, P. C., Calhoun, S. J., & Creegan, E. B. (2014). Resolving divergent findings on basking in reflected glory with political yard signs. North American Journal of Psychology, 16(3), 507–517. Retrieved January 1, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=99649094&site=ehost-live

Gebauer, J. E., Sedikides, C., Wagner, J., Bleidom, W., Rentfrow, P. J., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. D. (2015). Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 109(3), 526–548. Retrieved January 1, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=109070538&site=ehost-live

Leary, M., Tambor, E., Terdal, S., and Downs, D. (1995). Self esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68(3). 518–530. Retrieved January 1, 2018 from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=9503243881&site=ehost-live