Spiral of silence
The spiral of silence is a public opinion theory developed by German communications researcher Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in the 1970s and '80s. This theory posits that individuals who perceive their opinions to be in the minority are more likely to remain silent due to a fear of social isolation. Conversely, if they sense their views gaining popularity, they are more inclined to express them. A key component of this theory is the "quasi-statistical organ," which refers to the internal mechanism people use to gauge public opinion. Mass media plays a crucial role in shaping and reinforcing dominant public opinions, often sidelining minority viewpoints and intensifying the spiral of silence. This phenomenon can have significant implications for political discourse and organizational culture, particularly in cultures that prioritize communal values over individual expression. Critics argue that other factors, such as personal involvement and social influence, also affect whether individuals choose to voice their opinions. Additionally, the spiral of silence may impact democratic dialogue, as it can hinder the expression of diverse perspectives essential for a healthy democratic society. Ongoing research continues to explore the real-world effects and validity of the spiral of silence theory.
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Spiral of silence
The spiral of silence refers to a public opinion theory formulated in the 1970s and ’80s by Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann to explain what makes individuals either reluctant or willing to voice their opinions. According to Noelle-Neumann’s theory, the more an individual perceives his or her opinion to be in the minority, the more likely that person is to remain silent, whereas if the person notices his or her opinion gaining traction among the public, he or she will speak out. Mass media plays a central role in identifying and perpetuating the dominant public opinions. The spiral of silence may have particular implications for business practice and political dialogue, especially in countries and cultures that value communalism over individualism.
Overview
In 1974, Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, a German communications researcher, published the article “The Spiral of Silence: A Theory of Public Opinion,” in which she first outlined her theory. Her work was later informed by public opinion polling conducted during the 1985 elections in West Germany. According to Noelle-Neumann’s spiral of silence theory, fear of isolation is the primary reason that those in the minority remain silent, and all or most people are subject to the threat of isolation. The spiral concept comes from the idea that after those with a perceived minority view fall silent, they sense that their thoughts and/or feelings do not have an audience, and they stop trying to convince others of their perspective. The sense by which people gauge their opinions against the perceived public opinion has been termed the “quasi-statistical organ.”
Mass media representation and news coverage are considered reflective of the majority public opinion(s) and usually serve to reinforce the dominant opinion(s). Thus, lack of media representation or reporting is seen as voicelessness, and its long-term effects are to magnify the spiral of silence and to increase conformity. When minority views are represented or covered in the media, they are often criticized or scapegoated, fulfilling the media’s “pillory function,” as Noelle-Neumann dubbed it. In recent decades, however, topics and points of view addressed in the media do allow individuals to speak out about them, because the threat of isolation for doing so has been diminished somewhat.
Critics point out that many factors other than fear of isolation—including ego involvement, cognitive dissonance, and the social influence of immediate reference groups—can lead individuals to voice or suppress their opinions. They also note that tolerance for dissent varies from culture to culture, and the spiral of silence varies between heterogeneous and homogeneous groups: it is more likely to affect homogeneous societies, in which a single culture dominates, than heterogeneous societies, in which many cultures and subcultures exist. Some researchers note methodological flaws in the experimental research conducted to date and claim that there is insufficient empirical evidence to support the controversial theory.
Diverse viewpoints and dissent are widely considered integral to the functioning of true democracy. Consequently, the spiral of silence is seen as a threat to open political dialogue and to democratic institutions. Not only does it have the potential to influence the political landscape, but the spiral of silence can affect organizational and business culture as well. As of the mid-2010s, research into the real-world effects of the spiral of silence was ongoing.
Bibliography
Bodor, Tamás. “The Issue of Timing and Opinion Congruity in Spiral of Silence Research: Why Does Research Suggest Limited Empirical Support for the Theory?” Spiral of Silence. Ed. Thomas Petersen. Spec. issue of International Journal of Public OpinionResearch 24.3 (2012): 269–86. Print.
Glynn, Carroll J., and Jack M. McLeod. “Public Opinion du Jour: An Examination of the Spiral of Silence.” Public Opinion Quarterly 48 (2001): 731–40. Print.
Jowett, Garth, and Victoria O’Donnell. “Propaganda and Persuasion Examined.” Propaganda and Persuasion. 5th ed. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2012. 165–210. Print.
Lang, Kurt, and Gladys Engel Lang. “What Is This Thing We Call Public Opinion? Reflections on the Spiral of Silence.” Spiral of Silence. Ed. Thomas Petersen. Spec. issue of International Journal of Public OpinionResearch 24.3 (2012): 368–86. Print.
Matthes, Jorg, et al. “Testing Spiral of Silence Theory in Nine Countries: An Individual Differences Perspective.” Matters of Communication. Singapore: International Communication Assn., 2010. PDF file.
Noelle-Neumann, Elisabeth. The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion—Our Social Skin. 2nd ed. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1993. Print.
Perse, Elizabeth M. “Shaping Public Opinion.” Media Effects and Society. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2001. 83–131. Print.
Scheufele, Dietram A., and Patricia Moy. “Twenty-Five Years of the Spiral of Silence: A Conceptual Review and Empirical Outlook.” International Journal of Public OpinionResearch 12.1 (2000): 3–28. Print.