State (polity)
A state, in the political context, is a recognized entity that holds sovereignty over a defined territory, allowing it to govern and enforce laws independently. Sovereignty encompasses the authority to conduct government functions, such as tax collection and law enforcement, without external interference. The terms "state" and "country" are often used interchangeably in international discourse, while "nation-state" specifies a state characterized by a distinct national identity. Throughout history, the modern nation-state evolved from ancient civilizations, like Assyria and Egypt, which laid foundational governance structures that continue to influence contemporary statehood.
The development of the nation-state gained momentum in Europe around the late 15th century, coinciding with significant events like the rise of the Tudor dynasty and the onset of exploration and colonialism. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 was pivotal in establishing legal recognition of state sovereignty, impacting nationalism and the formation of modern states. States typically operate under a constitution that outlines the framework of governance and prioritizes citizens' welfare. However, globalization and the emergence of supranational organizations, such as the European Union, challenge traditional notions of statehood by promoting regional cooperation and governance. Additionally, movements for devolution, seen in regions like Catalonia and Scotland, reflect ongoing changes in how power is distributed within states.
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State (polity)
A state is a political entity, or polity, that holds widely or universally recognized sovereignty over a defined territory. In politics, the concept of sovereignty entails supreme authority and encompasses the legitimate jurisdiction to perform government functions, such as the creation and enforcement of laws and the collection of taxes without external interference. On an international level, the terms state and country are effectively interchangeable; the term nation-state is sometimes used to clarify this distinction. States can also be configured as internal divisions of a federated nation, as is the case in the United States of America.
Widespread or universal external recognition of a state's sovereignty over its territory is a key element of statehood. Without this recognition, the legitimacy of the state's assumed authority is questionable from a legal perspective, even if the declared state's citizens accept that authority.
Background
The foundations of the modern nation-state were laid in ancient times, when major civilizations coalesced into entities that loosely resembled countries. Well-known examples include Assyria, Babylonia, ancient Egypt, and ancient Greece.
Assyria was a civilization based in the historical Middle East region of Mesopotamia and held its central seat of power in the city of Assur on the banks of the Tigris River. Assur served as the capital of a succession of Assyrian empires, which flourished until the seventh century BCE. Babylonia, or Babylon, another ancient Mesopotamian civilization, was among the first to establish a centralized government, bureaucracy, and taxation system. Ancient Egypt was a prominent, regionally powerful, and highly influential civilization that adopted the name Misr during its later development. Misr translates to "country," confirming that the ancient Egyptians, whose civilization spread across a wide distance and included many cities, regarded themselves as a unified polity. The city-states of ancient Greece—which included Athens, Sparta, Corinth, and Thebes—existed as a loosely associated group of independent republics that shared a common language spoken in several dialects.
These ancient civilizations displayed various characteristics that have come to be associated with modern nation-states, including cultural and linguistic homogeneity, a centralized government based in a capital city, bureaucratic administration, taxation, military unity, and internally and externally recognized authority over their citizens. While the question of what exactly constitutes a nation continues to be the subject of much debate, these attributes are widely considered to be fundamental factors that wield a great deal of influence in the development, unification, and continuity of nation-states.
Overview
The rise of the modern nation-state largely took place in Europe, beginning around the 1480s. Prior to this time, most Europeans lived in towns, villages, or the countryside and were governed by aristocratic landlords through a hierarchical system known as feudalism. Most people who lived during the feudal era traveled very little, if at all, and paid little attention to events and developments that did not directly impact the towns, villages, or areas in which they lived.
In 1485, Henry VII of England emerged victorious from the Wars of the Roses (1455–1485) and became the patriarch of the Tudor dynasty. This event marked the beginning of England's evolution into a modern nation-state and coincided with other key historical events that led to the beginning of the Age of Discovery, a prolonged period of exploration and colonialism that brought much of the world under European control. The interrelated concepts of statehood and nationhood took on newfound importance during the colonial era when European powers led by Spain, France, and England began competing for territory on the world stage.
By 1648, modern notions of the nation-state had been enshrined in European law. That year, the Peace of Westphalia, a series of treaties that ended an extended period of religious warfare in Europe, was ratified by delegations representing numerous European nations. One of the key terms of the Peace of Westphalia gave legal protection to the sovereignty of nation-states, which subsequently led to a rising tide of European nationalism and national unification in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Concurrently, and into the twentieth century, the concept of statehood proliferated across the globe as colonial powers divested themselves of their overseas holdings and recognized the independence of territories that formerly fell under their jurisdiction.
The presence and viable authority of a structured, centralized government is one of the fundamental aspects of a state. These governments are achieved by consensus through the ratification of constitutions, which are a universal feature of recognized nation-states. A constitution is the supreme foundational law of a state, and it defines how political power is structured and internally applied. Constitutions generally share three primary attributes. First, they acknowledge and honor the traditions upon which the state was founded. Second, they can be changed through a defined legal process known as amendment, which allows the state to respond to changes in its internal character and circumstances. Third, they are usually designed to prioritize the good of the state's citizens ahead of the personal aspirations of government leaders and other powerful figures within the state.
In the twenty-first century, increased globalization has influenced the traditional character of the nation-state. Supranational organizations, such as the European Union (EU), have eroded some of the long-standing boundaries that define independent states in favor of a collectivist, regionally united approach to government. The rising importance of transnational organizations such as the United Nations has also affected conventional notions of statehood, giving the international community increased influence over the internal affairs of member states.
Another relatively new trend known as devolution has also affected statehood by granting increased power to regional governments within a state. For example, the Spanish region of Catalonia has achieved a high level of internal autonomy relative to other regions of Spain in response to sustained calls for Catalonia's independence. Similarly, Scotland has a unique status among the four member countries of the United Kingdom by holding a higher level of self-determination on specific political issues, as defined by the Scotland Act 1998 and the Scotland Act 2012.
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