Teaching Social Studies

This article discusses the teaching of K-12 social studies in the United States. Social studies is the name given to a constellation of interrelated disciplines -- including economics, political science, geography, history and civics -- that are intended to provide students an increasingly sophisticated understanding and appreciation of themselves, our society, and the experiences of others in societies around the world. The basic pattern for social studies education was established by the 1916 report of the National Education Association's Committee on Social Studies. However, in the century since social studies was established as a proper subject in U.S. public schools, many education experts have lamented that students have been subjected to a program of study that emphasizes rote memorization over critical thinking and an in-depth understanding of the subject matter.

According to a formal definition issued by the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), "Social studies is the integrated study of the social sciences and humanities to promote civic competence…. The primary purpose of social studies is to help young people develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world" (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994).

Unlike English and math, which have been fixtures on the American educational landscape since the founding of the country, social studies has a much more recent history. Its roots can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution that swept Great Britain and the United States in the early nineteenth century. Beginning with the British textile industry in the late eighteenth century, machinery began to change the way business was conducted on both sides of the Atlantic. Inventors harnessed the awesome energy of water and coal, and workers crammed into cities like London and Manchester to work in the factories that began to mass produce consumer goods.

Industrialization reached the United States as well, and one side effect was the growth of the American city. In 1860 there were only sixteen cities with a population over 50,000, but by 1900 there were seventy-eight (Walker, 1967, p. 57). Immigrants who sought a better life for themselves and their families poured into this land of plenty: ten million came between 1865 and 1890 (Johnson, 1998). "By 1890 New York had half as many Italians as Naples, as many Germans as Hamburg, twice as many Irish as Dublin, and two and a half times as many Jews as Warsaw" (Davidson, 1951, p. 407).

Such rapid industrialization did not come without a human cost, however. For the common people, political corruption, big business, and the rise of industry seemed to be conspiring -- intentionally or not -- against their happiness and the economic well-being of their families. In the context of their own lives, these realities raised some troubling questions for many Americans: How could good citizens help reduce the ills of society? How should one's quest for individual rights and economic opportunities be reconciled with the needs of society? In what ways could Americans understand their place within the world?

Social studies was the result of efforts to bring about improvements in social welfare -- one student at a time. Not surprisingly, the term "social studies" goes back a to 1887 book on conditions of urban workers, where it was proposed as a tool to improve social welfare (Saxe, 1991, p. 17). Social welfare activists understood that to enact positive changes in society at large, the individual members of that society must be taught about their roles and responsibilities as citizens. That meant education.

The first serious attempts in the United States to conceptualize the discipline that would become known as social studies began at the turn of the twentieth century. In 1896, Conway MacMillan, an education professor at the University of Minnesota, advocated the use of education to form students into social rather than non-social individuals, though he didn't use the term social studies. A year later Edmund James, president of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, called for inclusion of social studies in the public school curriculum, but he predicted that his dream would take another generation or two to become reality (Saxe, 1991, p. 21).

In 1905, Arthur E. Dunn, who would later chair the social studies Committee of the National Education Association, called for "social study" or "society study" (Saxe, 1991, p. 20). While he believed that sociology should be taught only in colleges and universities, Dunn argued that a less demanding version of sociology in the form of "social study" or "society study" should be taught in all public schools.

The first formalized proposal for "social study" was given by David Snedden, a professor at Teachers College, Columbia University, in 1907. He said it should be one of the five parts of the school curriculum, along with physical education, vocational education, cultural education, and "the education which aims at general mental discipline" (Saxe, 1991, p. 14).

These early proposals were made in the context of calls from progressive educators like John Dewey to orient the educational system around the needs of the child. Dewey and others argued that the teacher should be an advisor, a "Socratic midwife," helping students give birth to their own ideas through critical inquiry (Dewey, 1916, p. 38). These educators recommended communal learning and the development of problem-solving skills over rote memorization.

Progressive ideas dovetailed with calls for social studies instruction to produce more thoughtful citizens. In 1912 the National Education Association formed the Committee on Social Science as part of its Reorganization of Secondary School Studies. By the time the committee was ready to issue its preliminary report a year later, it had renamed itself the Committee on Social Studies. The committee's dual goals were "improv[ing] the citizenship of the land" and "the development in the pupil of a constructive attitude in the consideration of all social conditions" (cited in Glasheen, 1973, p. 2). While all education was to contribute to the betterment of society, social studies was particularly focused on that aim. Generally, for the committee and for Dewey, all education "must be a part of, not apart from, society" (Glasheen, 1973, p. 36).

In its 63-page final report, issued in 1916, the 21-member committee recommended a two-cycle program of social studies for grades 7-12:

Cycle One Cycle Two Grade 7: Geography and European History Grade 10: European History Grade 8: U.S. History and Civics Grade 11: U.S. History Grade 9: Civics Grade 12: Problems of American Democracy

The members of the committee briefly covered elementary school social studies, noting that it was centered on the study of geography, social institutions, and the like. They were confident that this course of study was laying the necessary foundation for secondary school social studies.

At the time, a large number of students completed their schooling by ninth grade. The intention of the committee members was for students in grades 7-9 to gain a basic understanding of social studies in case they were completing their education, and for students in grades 10-12 to gain a more complete mastery of the material in preparation for undergraduate studies in sociology, history, political science, and other fields.

However, as a warning to those who would slavishly follow the letter of the report, the members of the committee emphasized that their guidelines were precisely that. Twice quoting a relevant passage from Dewey, the members stressed that the needs and interests of the particular students in the classroom should weigh heavily in the creation of classroom assignments and discussion topics (Glasheen, 1973, pp. 32-39). The members added that this approach would result in the mastery of material related to the topics under discussion, though not necessarily the "mastery of a comprehensive body of knowledge" (Glasheen, 1973, p. 66). More specifically, the committee recommended teaching by "the problem method" (Glasheen, 1973, p. 5), wherein teachers would ask questions to spur their students to think carefully and creatively about the topic at hand. This would enable a multidisciplinary approach to addressing a given topic. The members argued that this approach would engage young minds by drawing upon their inherent interest in events taking place around them. All of this thinking was directed toward the goal of creating a self-sacrificing, "socially efficient person" who would better society as a whole (Glasheen, 1973, p. 65).

By 1924, one-third of schools had adopted the NEA's proposal for two three-year cycles for teaching secondary school social studies (Hertzberg, 1981), and the committee's guidelines continue to dominate social studies education to this day. The typical secondary school social studies curriculum echoes that of a century ago, though with some changes to make the coursework less Eurocentric:

Cycle One Cycle Two Grade 7: World History/Cultures/Geography Grade 10: World Culture/History Grade 8: U.S. History Grade 11: U.S. History Grade 9: Civics/Government or World Cultures/History Grade 12: American Government and Sociology/Psychology

Further Insights

Constructivism vs. Objectivism

Some of the debate about the state of social studies education centers on two philosophical theories of knowledge that have often been pitted against each other: constructivism and objectivism.

Constructivism places emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches and synthesizing ideas. "Constructed knowledge is embedded in one's own authentic personal experience" (Boyer & Semrau, 1995). Constructivist theory privileges asking questions, not memorizing answers, and it calls for critical thinking and self-reflection. Objectivism places less importance on experience and instead emphasizes the accumulation of objective knowledge in the form of facts. In some respects, constructivism and objectivism present a false dichotomy. Jerome Bruner, in his influential book "The Process of Education," argued that facts (objectivism) are a necessary prerequisite for critical thinking (constructivism).

Themes in Social Studies

In an attempt to explicate suggested national guidelines for social studies teaching, the National Council for the Social Studies highlighted several themes in 1994 and revised them in 2010. Taken together, these themes form the framework for effective social studies instruction.

• Culture: What is culture? What role does culture play in the development of people and societies? How are cultures different from one another? How are they alike? How does unity form within a culture and among cultures? What role does diversity play in a culture and how is maintained? How and why do cultures change over time? How do cultures spread within and across communities, regions, and nations? What are the various aspects of culture and how do they influence other aspects of culture?
• Time, Continuity, and Change: How do we learn about the past? How can we evaluate the usefulness and reliability of different historical sources? What are the roots of our social, political, and economic systems? What are our personal roots and how are they part of human history? Why is the past important to the present? How has the world changed and how might it change in the future? How do perspectives about the past differ and how do these differences influence current ideas and actions?
• People, Places, and Environments: What do people consider when they decide where to live? Why do they decide to stay where they are or move? Why is location important? How do people interact with the environment and what are the consequences? What physical and other characteristics lead to the creation of regions? How do maps, globes, geographic tools, and geospatial technologies help us understand people, places, and environments?
• Individual Development and Identity How do individuals grow and change over time? Why do individuals behave the way they do? What influences the way that people learn, perceive, and grow? How do people meet their needs in different times, places, and environments? How do social, political, and cultural interactions support identity development? How are development and identity defined in other times and places?
• Individuals, Groups, and Institutions: What is an institution? How do institutions impact the wider society, and how does the wider society impact the institutions? What is the role of institutions in my society and other societies? How do institutions influence me and other individuals? How do institutions change, and what is my role in such change?
• Power, Authority, and Governance: What are the purposes and functions of government? What are legitimate and illegitimate uses of political power and authority? What are the proper scope and limits of authority? How are individual rights protected or challenged within the context of majority rule? What conflicts exist among fundamental principles and values of constitutional democracy? What are the rights and responsibilities of citizens within a constitutional democracy?
• Production, Distribution, and Consumption: What should society produce? What is the best and most equitable distribution of goods and services? What factors influence decision making regarding production, distribution, and consumption of goods? What are the best ways to deal with market failures? How does the interdependence of globalization impact local economies and social systems?
• Science, Technology, and Society: What can the past teach us about the way technology brings about broad social change, some of which is unanticipated? Is new technology always better than current or outdated technology? How can individuals and society deal with the increasing pace of technological change and the concern that technology could grow out of control? How can we manage technology so the most people benefit from it? How do science and technology affect our sense of self and morality? How are disparate cultures brought together by technology? What are some of the strengths, weaknesses, benefits, and challenges of this interconnectedness? How can we preserve fundamental beliefs and values in an increasingly interconnected world? How can access gaps be bridged?
• Global Connections: What are the different types of global connections? What types of connections existed in the past, exist now, and may exist in the future? How do ideas spread between societies today, and what impact do these ideas have on different societies? What are other consequences of global connections? What are the benefits and problems of global interdependence? Do people from different parts of the world have different perspectives on the benefits and problems? What influence has global interdependence had on international migration patterns? How should people and societies balance global connectedness with local needs? What do individuals need to thrive in an ever changing and increasingly interdependent planet?
• Civic Ideals and Practices: What are the democratic ideals and practices of a constitutional democracy? What is the balance between rights and responsibilities? What is civic participation? How do citizens become involved? What is the role of a citizen in the community, nation, and world community? (National Council for the Social Studies, 2010).

Stages of Student Development

There is a large and growing body of literature in the field of educational psychology that seeks to apply the work of developmental psychologists to the interactions between teachers and students. In order to achieve a high level of professional success and satisfaction, teachers seek to understand the moral, intellectual, and emotional development of their students.

Though they differ on important details, psychologists such as Erik Erickson, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky have stressed that students go through stages of cognitive, emotional, and moral development. As applied to social studies teaching, these stages should determine the nature of the lessons, how they are presented, and the methods of student evaluation that are used. Piaget suggested, for example, that high school history students should be encouraged to work in small groups and use alternative methods of learning such as dialogues and mock trials because they have reached the third level of cognitive development he called Formal Operational Thinking. Students in elementary school, by contrast, are more literal thinkers who are less likely to think about social studies in abstract terms.

Learning Styles & Multiple Intelligences

The influential work of Howard Gardner and others shows that just as students come to the social studies classroom with different conceptions about the relevance of social studies to their own lives and communities, so they also come with different learning styles or ways of learning. The theory of multiple intelligences holds that in any given social studies classroom, students approach learning in different, but complementary ways.

There are several types of intelligence that social studies instructors must take into account when preparing and teaching lessons:

• Interpersonal intelligence: Student works well in groups
• Intrapersonal intelligence: Student is self-directed, focused on achieving the goal
• Linguistic intelligence: Student learns primarily through words
• Mathematical and logical intelligence: Student detects patterns; uses logic to solve problems
• Visual and spatial intelligence: Student learns through observation and visualization
• Kinesthetic intelligence: Student learns best by doing
• Musical intelligence: Student is adept at detecting tones, rhythms, and music
• Naturalist intelligence: Student is at home in nature (Gardner 1983; 1993)

Skilled teachers will seek to recognize students with these intelligences, thereby making the subject matter more appealing to all students.

The Role of the Internet in Social Studies Teaching

The rise of the Internet in the mid-1990s brought with it the potential for a significant impact on classroom instruction. Now, rather than relying almost exclusively on the textbook, students and their teachers are exposed to a broad range of content, including audio and video. As applied to social studies, teachers are now able to draw upon a vast collection of primary source material in preparing lessons, and they are also able to communicate -- via email, instant messaging, blogs, chat rooms, or videoconferencing -- with other social studies teachers around the world to discuss best practices or even gain encouragement in challenging classroom situations. A simple web search reveals tens of thousands of constantly-evolving resources, and these practical resources dovetail with the global academic conferences on social studies teaching put together by groups such as the National Council for the Social Studies. Beyond lesson plans and collegial benefits for teachers, the Internet also brings with it the potential to engage those students who do not learn best from reading or oral instruction. Through streaming audio, video, and other content available online, history teachers can enrich both the learning experience of students with a broad, preexisting interest in social studies and the learning experience of those students who may have struggled with the topic. Some argue that the use of multimedia in the classroom is also a better way to engage students who have been raised on a steady diet of television, movies, and video games.

Viewpoints

Challenges Facing Social Studies Education

Despite the best intentions of Dewey and other progressive educators on the 1916 social studies Committee, there have been a number of problems with social studies instruction over the past century. While they stressed the need for students to become more active learners, many experts agree that the emphasis in the social studies classroom has continued to be on textbook-based learning, with a low percentage of teachers using creative approaches to engaging the minds of their students. In 1961, Charles R. Keller drew a similar conclusion regarding the prevailing methodology of social studies teachers: "The time has come to take a searching look at the social studies in American schools, to ask why nothing significant is happening in this area, and to make suggestions for change. A revolution is needed, and soon" (Keller, 1961, cited in Herbert & Murphy, 1968, p. 1).

With respect to the content of the social studies curriculum, Keller chided educators for following the recommendations of the 1916 committee too religiously by deemphasizing sequential learning in favor of more ad hoc, impressionistic approaches tailored wholly to the classroom discussion of a given topic. More specifically, Keller argued that students in the midst of the Cold War were being schooled in patriotism, but not taught the basics of geography, American government, and American history. Teachers and administrators had it backwards: "Democratic attitudes and good citizenship can be important by-products of effective rearing and teaching," he wrote (Keller 1961, cited in Herbert & Murphy, 1968, p. 6). Keller advocated sequential coursework that would build upon itself: as students progressed in school, they would go from learning about concrete events to discussing abstract principles, with the goal of developing skills in "analysis, critical thinking, and interpretation" (p. 7).

From all indications, social studies teaching in the United States continues to be plagued by underlying tensions. Caron (2004) provides a summary of the literature regarding social studies instruction and corresponding student attitudes:

"The listlessness of secondary social studies instruction is well-documented. Critics describe social studies instruction as fragmented and expository, brought about by an overstuffed curriculum that privileges rote learning at the expense of in-depth analysis of issues (Evans, 1989a; Evans, et. al, 1999; Goodlad, 1984; Newmann, 1988; Onosko, 1996b, 1996a, 1992; Sizer, 1985; Wiggins, 1989). Knowledge is often taught as a series of facts to be learned rather than as an opportunity to raise questions and confront societal or historical problems. Students are taught "as if there are simple answers to the questions we have about the nature of society, or worse, [they are] taught without asking those questions for which there are no answers" (Bloom and Ochoa, 1996, p.327). Teachers continue to rely on the textbook as the primary source for organizing their course (Chiodo and Byford, 2004; Shaughnessy & Haladyna, 1985), and classroom discussions and assessments frequently require students to reproduce answers already given to them rather than encourage higher-level reasoning and decision making (Shaver, Davis, and Helburn, 1979). Given these data, it is hardly surprising that students consistently rate social studies as one of their least favorite subjects (Goodlad, 1984; Owens, 1997; Remy, 1972; Rossi, 1995; Shaver, Davis, & Helburn, 1979; Snug, Todd, and Beery, 1984). High school students also report that social studies classes present very little new knowledge, particularly when compared to other core subjects such as science, mathematics, and literature (Remy, 1972). National studies and reports continue to show significant percentages of high school students lacking knowledge of the basic facts of American history, government, and geography" (Ravitch and Finn, 1988; Schlafly, 2003; Lapp, et. al, 2002; Lutkus, et. al, 1999; Weiss, et. al, 2002).

It is not entirely clear why implementing the recommendations of the 1916 committee -- as well as those of like-minded groups since -- has proven so difficult, but a few hints at a more comprehensive answer have been provided by social scientists in Caron (2004):

"First and foremost, many teachers are reluctant to relinquish the control necessary to facilitate the discussion and debate of issues (Gross, 1989; Onosko, 1996). Encouraging students to take more ownership in their own learning can be a risky proposition for educators, particularly in light of the premium many teachers and administrators place on well-managed classrooms. In addition, practitioners have little exposure to issue or problem-based teaching in their own K-12 school experience, making the approach especially difficult for which to plan or organize (Gross, 1989; Koeppen, 1999; Onosko, 1996). Furthermore, issue-based curricula is hard to accommodate with the limited treatment textbooks and instructional materials give to civics or history-related problem areas (Gross, 1989; Onosko, 1996)." (Caron, 2004, p. 1)

National Standards & Standardized Testing

Political realities have also impinged upon the effective teaching of social studies, at least in the lower grades. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, elementary social studies education was impacted by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), which began to require teachers to prepare students to take standardized tests once it was signed into law by President George W. Bush in 2002. Because social studies is not a subject covered by the tests, it has received less attention during the school day than tested subjects (Hutton, Curtis, & Burstein 2006). The result is that many elementary students are entering 7-12 social studies with an inadequate understanding of the subject, and the problem is made worse by their expectation that secondary social studies instruction will be based upon textbooks and the uninspiring regurgitation of answers.

Social studies instruction in US public schools is now conducted against the backdrop of NCLB. The law is designed to raise educational standards in all American public schools, but social studies is not one of the core subjects identified by lawmakers. In practice this has meant that those subjects involved in federal testing have been given more resources, for the simple reason that poor student performance in tested subjects is likely result in decreased state and federal funding.

As Hutton, Curtis, and Burstein (2006) note, quality social studies education in elementary schools is still more a dream than a reality. Without as much money at stake, there is less political pressure for the reform of social studies, despite the fact that it has been a subject area that has been beset by challenges and false starts for nearly a century. Given this backdrop, what does the future hold for social studies? With the need for American students to become more aware of their roles and responsibilities in the global village, social studies would appear more necessary than ever, despite its well-documented shortcomings. Meanwhile, the quest continues for ways to teach social studies more effectively.

Terms & Concepts

Constructivism: A philosophy of education that places emphasis on interdisciplinary approaches to knowledge through the synthesis of ideas. Constructivist theory privileges asking questions, not memorizing answers, and it calls for critical thinking and self-reflection.

Educational Psychology: An increasingly influential field of study that seeks to apply the findings of developmental psychology to the classroom setting.

Multiple Intelligences: The theory, popularized by Howard Gardner in the 1980s, that students have different learning styles or ways of learning that must be taken into account within the education system.

National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS): Organization founded in 1921 to promote and advocate the study of social sciences in the public school and college classroom. Membership reaches throughout the United States and represents social studies teachers, college faculty, curriculum specialists.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: Legislation signed into law by President George W. Bush in 2002 that aimed to improve public education in the United States. It was aimed especially at poor and minority children.

Objectivism: A philosophy of education that places less importance on experience and instead emphasizes the accumulation of objective knowledge in the form of facts.

Progressive Education: A continuation and elaboration of New Education ideas that took the life experiences of children as a starting point for education.

Social Studies: The name given to a constellation of interrelated disciplines -- including economics, political science, geography, and civics -- that are intended to provide students an increasingly sophisticated understanding and appreciation of themselves, their own society, and the experiences of others in societies around the world.

Standardized Tests: Regular subject exams given to elementary and secondary school subjects at various stages in their pre-college career. They are designed to track student progress and identify gaps in student knowledge.

Bibliography

Bernstein, K. (2013). Warnings from the trenches. Academe, 99(1), 32-36. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Resource Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85113577

Boyer, B. A, & Semrau, P. (1995). A constructivist approach to social studies: Integrating technology. Social Studies & the Young Learner 7 (3), pp. 14-16.

Caron, E. (2004). The impact of a methods course on teaching practices: Implementing issues-centered teaching in the secondary social studies classroom. Journal of Social Studies Research 28 (2) 4-19. Retrieved May 23, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=14692474&site=ehost-live

Davidson, M. B. (1951). Life in America. Vol. 2. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Ediger, M. (2004). Recent trends in the social studies. Journal of Instructional Psychology 31 (3). p. 240-45. Retrieved May 23, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=14701526&site=ehost-live

Gardner, Howard (1983; 1993) Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Glasheen, P. (1973). The advent of social studies, 1916. Ed.D. dissertation. Boston: Boston University School of Education.

Heafner, T. L., & Fitchett, P. G. (2012). Tipping the scales: National trends of declining social studies instructional time in elementary schools. Journal of Social Studies Research, 36(2), 190-215. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Resource Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90622745

Hertzberg, H.W. (1981). Social studies reform: 1880-1980. Boulder, CO: Social Science Education Consortium.

Hutton, L. A., Curtis, C. & Burstein, J. H. (2006). The state of elementary social studies teaching in one urban district. Journal of Social Studies Research 31 (1). 15-20. Retrieved May 23, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19819558&site=ehost-live

Johnson, P. (1998). A history of the American people. New York: HarperCollins.

Keller, C. R. (1961). Needed: Revolution in the social studies. Saturday Review 44 (60-61), reprinted in Herbert, L. J., and W. Murphy, eds. (1968) Structure in the social studies. Social Studies Readings, Number 3. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies.

Morrissett, I. (1981). The needs of the future and the constraints of the past. In Mehlinger, H.D. and O. L. Davis Jr., eds. The social studies. 80th Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

National Council for the Social Studies (1994). Expectations of excellence: Curriculum standards for social studies. Silver Spring, MD: National Council for the social studies. Abridged version Retrieved May 5, 2007 from National Council for the Social Studies: http://www.ncss.org/standards/.

National Council for the Social Studies (2010). National curriculum standards for social studies: Chapter 2 -- the themes of social studies. Retrieved on December 11, 2013 from http://www.socialstudies.org/standards/strands

Saxe, D.W. (1991). Social studies in the schools: A history of the early years. Albany: SUNY Press.

Sunal, C. S., McCormick, T., Sunal, D. & Shwery, C. (2005). Elementary teacher candidates' construction of criteria for selecting social studies lesson plans for electronic portfolios. Journal of Social Studies Research 29 (1). 7-17. Retrieved May 6, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=16137615&site=ehost-live

Walker, R. H. (1967). Everyday life in the age of enterprise, 1865-1900. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.

Winstead, L. (2011). The impact of NCLB and accountability on social studies: Teacher experiences and perceptions about teaching social studies. Social Studies, 102(5), 221-227. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Resource Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=64374725

Suggested Reading

Bricker, D. C. Classroom life as civic education. New York and London: Teacher's College Press, 1989.

Bruner, J. (1963). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning & Engagement (2003). Campaign for the civic mission of schools. New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York. Retrieved May 7, 2007 from the Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning & Engagement: http://www.civicmissionofschools.org/campaign/documents/CivicMissionofSchools.pdf.

Carretero, M. & Vass, J. F. (1994). Cognitive and instructional processes in history and the social studies. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cuban, L. (1984). How teachers taught: Constancy and change in American classrooms, 1890-1980. London: Longman.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillan. Retrieved May 13, 2007 from Project Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/852.

Hunkins, F. P. & Spears, P. F. (1973). Social studies for the evolving individual. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Keller, C. R. (1962), History and social sciences: Reflections and recommendations. Journal of Secondary Education 37:263-70 (May 1962), pp. 509-516, reprinted in Gross, R.E., W.E. McPhie, and J.R. Fraenkel, Teaching the social studies: What, why, and how. Scranton, Pa.: International Textbook Company.

Kurtz, K. T., Rosenthal, A. & Zukin, C. (2003). Citizenship: A challenge for all generations. National Conference of State Legislatures. Retrieved May 7, 2007 from National Conference of State Legislatures: http://www.cpn.org/topics/youth/k12/pdfs/NCSL%5FCitizenship.pdf.

Martell, C. C. (2013). Learning to teach history as interpretation: A longitudinal study of beginning teachers. Journal of Social Studies Research, 37(1), 17-31. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Resource Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89040630

Ostrom, R. (2004). Active learning strategies for using cartoons and Internet research assignments in social studies courses. Social Studies Review. Retrieved May 6, 2007 from FindArticles: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi%5Fqa4033/is%5F200404/ai%5Fn9373933

Rapoport, A. (2013). Global citizenship themes in the social studies classroom: Teaching devices and teachers' attitudes. Educational Forum, 77(4), 407-420. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Resource Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89946527

Snowman, J. & Biehler, R. (2006). Psychology applied to teaching. 11th ed. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Spencer, H. (1861). Essays on education and kindred subjects.

Taylor, J. & Duran, M. (2006). Teaching social studies with technology: New research on collaborative approaches. History Teacher, 40 (1), pp. 9-25. Retrieved May 20, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23610286&site=ehost-live

True, L. A. (1955). An analysis of social studies practices in the intermediate grades. M.A. Thesis. Boston: Boston University School of Education.