Tutoring

Abstract

Tutoring is an educational method in which a tutor uses individualization and differentiated instruction to provide remediation to students-tutees-for mastery learning. In a tutorial system, learning takes place principally through one-on-one instruction. The tutorship of a student results in benefits both for the student and for the tutor. Different types of structured tutoring programs have been established and two of the many exemplary programs are briefly described. The many advantages of tutoring contribute to increased student achievement and positive affective outcomes. The disadvantages of tutoring occur sporadically and are typically manageable. Current research on tutoring has examined its impacts and determined that most procedures produce good results.

Overview

The history of tutoring extends back to Socrates and his pedagogy of academic discourse in which he made use of his Socratic dialogue method of inquiry to elicit evidence of learning via a series of questions posed to a student. An interesting phenomenon historically observed with the practice of tutoring is the so-called tutorial cycle, wherein those who were once tutored often later become tutors themselves. The psychological theories of Bruner, Vygotsky, and Feuerstein support tutorial interactions and interrelationships.

Tutoring is an important and essential support system that schools can provide to help students succeed in regular classes. Tutoring programs serve the remedial, developmental, and compensatory needs of students who are educationally disadvantaged or who are having academic difficulties. Students with low skills in a given area can be provided with individualized attention and extended practice to build up these skills. The primary goal of tutoring is to maximize the educational performance of a student (Gabriel, 2005; Garstka, 1979; Webb et al., 1992).

Tutoring is a valuable method of individualized instruction used for remediating students and for mastery learning, based on providing differentiated instruction through individualization or using small groups. A tutorial system is one in which a teacher--a tutor--is generally assigned to assist, instruct, and/or examine a single student--a tutee--who is a charge of the tutor. Tutorials provide opportunities for learning to take place principally in one-on-one settings. Tutoring is an educational arrangement in which both students and tutors benefit (Gabriel, 2005; Karlin, 1980; Martz, 1992; Schubert, 1986; Webb, Metha, & Jordan, 1992). Table 1 reviews specific nomenclature or terms associated with the educational practice of tutoring.

Since a tutor works with a student on an individual basis in most cases, the tutor has an individual responsibility for helping him or her succeed. A tutor can discuss subject matter, lend assistance with problems, explore the implications of particular points, and go over missed items. When a tutor is trained to offer guidance and to use appropriate instructional materials, the tutored child profits (Gage & Berliner, 1988; Karlin, 1980; Schubert, 1986; Webb et al., 1992).

Many different tutor-tutee combinations have been tried. A tutorial may be as simple as a single teacher offering constructive one-on-one help to students who need it. A tutor may also be an adult volunteer, a professional employee of a school district, or a fellow student. Not all remediation of students can occur in a classroom setting. As students' needs vary, there is oftentimes a demand for individual tutoring that occurs with private tutors outside the classroom (Gabriel, 2005; Gage & Berliner, 1988; Martz, 1992; Webb et al., 1992).

The Socratic Method. Tutoring and tutorial programs originated as an extension of the "drill and practice" method of instruction. The one-on-one model has a long, time-honored tradition that dates back to the Greek philosopher Socrates (ca. 470-399 BCE). Socrates' pedagogy of academic discourse, called the Socratic dialogue method, posed a series of questions to a student. The questions were designed to elicit from the student an evidentiary expression of something that was supposed to be implicitly known by all rational beings. As Socrates demonstrated by his tutelary method, he was respectful and protective of students and treated them as valuable contributors to the educational process. One student tutored by Socrates was Plato (ca. 428-348 BCE), who perfectly exemplified the fact that all "students lost in Plato's cave" might very well need an experienced tutor to serve as guide. Perhaps that is why Plato later tutored Aristotle (384-322 BCE) and Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) and so on (Blowers, Ramsey, Merriman, & Grooms, 2003; Heilbron, 1994; Longo, 2007; Merriam-Webster Inc., 1988; Smith, 1995; Webb et al., 1992; Weigle, 1981).

Psychological Basis of Tutoring: Bruner, Vygotsky & Feuerstein

According to Jerome Bruner's theory of cognitive growth, systematic interactions between a tutor and a learner are needed for cognitive development. A designated tutor or teacher must interpret and share the culture into which a child is born. Father, mother, teacher, or member of society, a "tutor" must teach a child for full intellectual development (Bruner, 1966; Gage & Berliner, 1988).

The influence of the culture a child is born into was also an important element of the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky's theory. Vygotsky's emphasis on the role of adults in influencing the cognitive development of children was also most likely the origin of the Israeli psychologist Reuven Feuerstein's ideas of mediated learning or learning that is assisted by an adult.

Per Feuerstein's theory, the adult assists the learner in understanding and solving a problem by mediating his or her learning experience. Mediated learning done regularly can make a difference in a child's intellectual functioning. Conversely, a child who is deprived of mediation may develop cognitive rigidity, inflexibility, and lack of openness to novel situations (Feuerstein, 1980; Feuerstein, Hoffman, & Rand, 1985; Gage & Berliner, 1988; Vygotsky, 1978).

The cognitive development of children is enhanced when they work cooperatively or collaboratively with adults. According to Vygotsky's theory, cognitive development progresses from other-regulated behavior to self-regulated behavior. Tutors ideally function as promoters of self-regulation by nurturing the emergence of self-control in a child. Tutors, as experts, model many forms of control over their thinking and problem-solving activities--controls that children must internalize if they are to become successful and independent thinkers and problem solvers. A competent tutor is a nurturing mediator of learning. The difference in the level of functioning of a child when working independently based on his or her developmental level and when working with an adult or tutor under optimal circumstances of potential development is referred to as "the zone of proximal development." Good instruction proceeds ahead of development, awakens and brings to life those functions of the child that are in the process of maturing and that are in the zone of proximal development. Direct tutelage plays a significant role in the cognitive development of children. A tutor assists a child to the mastery of more complex levels of functioning and increased knowledge in an area. In short, then, a tutor provides the "intellectual scaffolding" for a child to climb (Campione & Armbruster, 1985; Gage & Berliner, 1988; Vygotsky, 1986). In addition, studies have showed that private tutoring helps students become more capable of succeeding on their own later in their academic career (Seo, 2018).

Applications

Tutoring Programs. Tutoring programs benefit low achievers by teaching remedial skills. They also provide training to individual tutors, teaching aides, and paraprofessionals. The tutors in most school-sponsored tutoring programs are nonprofessional teachers and paraprofessionals. Detailed programs for tutoring training and sets of procedures for handling tutoring are typically developed by tutoring program coordinators (Gage & Berliner, 1988). Structured, one-on-one, before- and after-school programs are established to target specific areas of need and focus on different skills and objectives each week. A general skills tutorial program for high school freshmen and sophomores, for example, assists students in managing time, organizing work, keeping track of homework assignments, making legible notes, reading maps, and studying for tests. Tutoring programs are not a cure-all for the problems students and teachers face and they must be publicized in order to attract students who can benefit most from them (Gabriel, 2005; Martz, 1992).

Peer Tutoring. Good tutoring programs make use of student contributions, as more academically advanced students are able to help novices. Peer tutoring programs are effective options in improving student achievement. Peer tutors are students who are close in age to the students being tutored. Cross-age tutors are also students but they are of significantly higher age, grade, ability and/ or achievement level than the tutees they are working with. An example of a cross-age tutor is a middle school student who tutors a primary or early elementary student. In high schools, groups like the National Honor Society may make tutoring services available (Gabriel, 2005; Gage & Berliner, 1988; Martz, 1992).

Program Example: Valued Youth Partnership. One successful tutoring program is the Coca-Cola Valued Youth Program (VYP, formerly the Valued Youth Partnership), which began in San Antonio, Texas, in 1984 and has since expanded across the United States and Brazil. This program helps to persuade low achievers to stay in school by making them tutors of younger children (Martz, 1992). In VYP, the younger students who are behind in their basic skills are tutored by peer classmates and cross-age tutors. The grades and achievement test scores of the students improve significantly in every subject. At the same time, the tutors, who are at least three years older than the students they teach, learn as much as the students, since the tutoring often changes the behavior, attitudes, and performance of the tutors. Some of the proven outcomes are:

• Increases in academic achievement,
• Raises in self-esteem and self-confidence,
• A more positive attitude about school,
• Improvement in attendance, and
• Getting the parents and business community involved in the process of education.

Although the pilot program proved that the basic idea could work with tutors at both the senior and junior high school levels, the VYP phased out the senior high programs and focused its energies on the middle school level. Middle school tutors work with and tutor elementary school children in the controlled atmosphere of an elementary classroom. Tutors have no more than three assigned students and they work for four to eight hours a week under a supervising elementary classroom teacher (Martz, 1992). The success of the program does not come easily; peer tutors need to be carefully selected and trained (Garstka, 1979; Martz, 1992).

Program Example: HOSTS. Another exemplary tutoring program is HOSTS or, Helping One Student to Succeed, a remedial reading program that uses volunteer mentors to come into schools and tutor slow learners one-on-one with individual lessons (Martz, 1992). The program has proven to be very effective with problem readers and has generally increased academic achievement and affective development. Retired school teachers or other adults from the community serve as tutors. Although each tutee uses four different tutors, this has not created a problem in daily continuity. Volunteer tutors work half-hour sessions one or more times a week. Most tutors work regularly with their students, and lessons are individually designed and tightly scripted. A classroom reading teacher uses a computerized database of texts and other educational materials to construct customized, individually tailored, targeted lessons. Tutors provide personal attention, lesson reinforcement, help in understanding basic concepts, and correction of mistakes. A typical tutoring session may include vocabulary building, skill mastery, and story read-alouds. Tutors fill out comment sheets after each session providing feedback and summarizing each tutee's performance for the teacher on each section of the lesson (Martz, 1992).

Instruction Techniques. Tutors provide instruction with a mastery orientation and approach, continuing to instruct students until they demonstrate mastery of a particular area. Although the one-on-one relationship is the primary arrangement, tutors can adopt various other tutoring patterns. These include the dyad (two students), small-group (three or more students), large group, problem-based, skill-based, assignment-based, or question-based (Blowers et al., 2003; Gage & Berliner, 1988).

The general components of tutoring are widely recognized:

• Diagnosis,
• Remedy,
• Provision of support and encouragement.

Before a tutor can instruct, he or she must use diagnostic processes to determine what is specifically blocking a student's progress in a given academic area. Diagnostic processes may involve conversations with the tutee, analysis of samples of work provided by the tutee, or an actual diagnostic test. Tutors can also consult with regular classroom teachers for information, suggestions, or materials (Gage & Berliner, 1988).

During a tutoring session, a tutor asks questions of the tutee and waits for answers. He or she either praises correct responses or furnishes them. A tutee's correct response cues the tutor to remain at the same skill level for additional practice or to go on to the next skill when evidence of learning is sufficient. A tutee's incorrect response, however, means that the tutor should give the right answer. A tutor may then give the tutee opportunities to practice correctly skills found to be deficient. A tutor may repeat questions, problems, or practice exercises as often as needed (Gage & Berliner, 1988).

Tutoring sessions should be of sufficiently short duration and use a tutorial style that is appropriate for both the tutor's and the tutee's age and status. A tutor should make use of comfortable humor and learning games when tutoring children. A tutor should inform a tutee that a task is fairly difficult, which may protect the student's self-esteem if he or she fails and/or make the reward that much greater if the student succeeds (Gage & Berliner, 1988). A tutor should generally provide lots of positive reinforcement. The feedback and progress reports a tutor provides should be in positive and encouraging terms, and performance should only be compared with his or her own past performance (Gage & Berliner, 1988). Tutoring can occur in person or online. Online tutoring has grown in popularity in the twenty-first due to a rise in technology and the flexibility in time it allows for both the tutor and the tutee (Sembiring, 2018).

Viewpoints

Advantages. Tutoring is typically done face-to-face, in person or through video online, and many of its advantages relate to the personal interactions and interrelations that develop between a respected tutor and a tutee. This relationship provides an environment in which maximum interaction and input can occur and can make a significant difference in student learning (Gage & Berliner, 1988; Schubert, 1986). Among its many advantages, tutoring can:

• Help students at any age level;
• Allow for instruction that is paced for individual student learning at different rates;
• Provide for periods of reflective thinking and for unpredictable "quantum leaps" made by individual students (Gage & Berliner, 1988; Webb et al., 1992);
• Facilitate learning and understanding by interacting differently and using different instructional strategies with different students;
• Provide immediate feedback to students. (Gabriel, 2005; Gage & Berliner, 1988);
• Generally contribute to improved academic skills and performance;
• Result in increased trust, flexibility, and communication skills; and
• Help to increase the tutor's competence and self-esteem as well (Blowers et al., 2003; Gage & Berliner, 1988).

Potential Problems. Among the pedagogical disadvantages of tutoring is that tutors may lack the professionalism of trained teachers, as they may be adults who have had no special training in education or pedagogy. Although tutors typically require ongoing training and professional development, they may, in fact, not get much training (Martz, 1992).

Tutoring involves varied relationships, different skills, and different outcomes. Tutoring prevalently occurs in the out-of-hours or off-hours before school, after school, or on weekends, so intense independent work is needed. Tutoring sessions may require a significant amount of preparation time; the tutor may need to develop lessons, materials, or instructional resources (Blowers et al., 2003; Wigginton, 1986).

A tutorial system is not realistic from an economic standpoint in delivering education. Tutoring, especially private, may be pay-for-service, have associated monetary costs, and be provided only with payment. Disadvantaged students and those most in need of tutoring cannot afford private tutors, so tutoring services may only be available for the most affluent students, families, and schools (Gabriel, 2005; Schubert, 1986). Tutors may be asked to accomplish parenting tasks when parents are too busy or anxious. Among the practical tasks and duties parents may turn over to tutors are to serve as family concierges, transportation providers, dispute negotiators, bicycle coaches, and even toilet-training experts (Jeffrey et al., 2005).

Research. Researchers have sought to determine the impact of tutoring on student progress. Research on tutoring from the late 1980s onward indicates that it is a useful adjunct to classroom instruction. Research on tutoring shows that all or most procedures produce good results and that tutoring has positive cognitive and affective effects on both tutees and tutors. Among the cognitive objectives improved or increased by tutoring are students' scores on achievement tests. Affective objectives that are increased include tutees' subject-matter interest and self-esteem.

Research does not suggest that tutoring should replace classroom teachers' efforts to promote achievement, but it does support the general importance of ongoing tutor training and skill development (Gage & Berliner, 1988; Karlin, 1980; Silen, 2006).

There is some evidence that slow learners make better tutors than honor students because they better understand what particular problems and issues hamper underachievers. This seems to indicate that underachievers can improve their own performance while they are tutoring younger students. Research on cross-age tutoring indicates that this type of tutorial arrangement provides great benefits to both older and younger students (Gage & Berliner, 1988; Karlin, 1980; Martz, 1992).

Although preschool tutoring services are offered to children as young as two years old, early tutoring may ignore research findings on child learning (Hwang, 2004). Research has found that children aged 6 to 8 who receive two forms of parental tutorial input--explicit operationalized strategies and explanations of principles--show more rapid gains in accurate solutions to, and improvement in understanding of, problems relative to children who receive no assistance (Philips & Tolmie, 2007).

In yet another research study, Norman and Hyland (2003) found that even after overcoming situational and institutional barriers to increased learning and achievement, there remain dispositional obstacles that are linked to students' attitudes, perceptions, and motivations, including their self-confidence that could be addressed by tutors and mentors.

Terms & Concepts

Cross-Age Tutors: Tutors of significantly higher age, grade, ability, and/or achievement levels who work with students of significantly lower age, grade, ability, and/or achievement levels; for example, fifth-grade middle school students who tutor first-grade elementary students.

Differentiated Instruction: Instruction that is based on the selection and use of methods that ensure that learning will be most effective for a given individual or group of individuals.

Individualization: Adjusting instruction so that it is appropriate to the interests, needs, and abilities of specific students.

Mastery Learning: Instructional system in which teachers or tutors work with students continuously until desired performance levels that have been previously identified are attained.

Mediated Learning: Learning that is assisted by an adult who continuously corrects and re-corrects a learner until he or she is able to understand and/or solve a problem.

Peer Tutoring: A process in which a student provides instruction and learning assistance to another student, most typically of similar age and grade.

Remedial Instruction: Instruction focused on addressing academic weaknesses or compensatory disadvantages of a student.

Remediation: Assistance provided to a student to correct for academic shortcomings or compensate for disadvantages.

Socratic Dialogue: Also called the Socratic method; a method of academic discourse developed and used by Socrates in which a student is asked repeated questions to elicit truths that are assumed to be implicit in all rational beings.

Tutorial Cycle: Also called the circle of tutoring; the observed apparent pattern of reoccurrence in which individuals who were once tutored later become tutors themselves.

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Suggested Reading

Bowman-Perrott, L., Davis, H., Vannest, K., Williams, L., Greenwood, C., & Parker, R. (2013). Academic benefits of peer tutoring: A meta-analytic review of single-case research. School Psychology Review, 42 , 39-55. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=86877018&site=ehost-live

Denti, L. (2004). Introduction-pointing the way: Teaching reading to struggling readers at the secondary level. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 20 , 109-112. Retrieved September 07, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12377206&site=ehost-live

Mackiewicz, J., & Thompson, I. (2013). Motivational scaffolding, politeness, and writing center tutoring. Writing Center Journal, 33 , 38-73. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89983582&site=ehost-live

Philips, S., & Tolmie, A. (2007). Children's performance on and understanding of the balance scale problem: The effects of parental support. Infant & Child Development, 16 , 95-117. Retrieved September 07, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23866418&site=ehost-live

Song Chang, H., & Yoon Soo, P. (2012). An analysis of the relationship between self-study, private tutoring, and self-efficacy on self-regulated learning. KEDI Journal of Educational Policy, 9 , 113-144. Retrieved December 11, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=78418580&site=ehost-live

Srivastava, R., & Rashid, M. (2018). Who is at edge—tutors or tutees? Academic, social and emotional evaluation through peer tutoring. Arab World English Journal. Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=131366183&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Topping, K., Nixon, J., Sutherland, J., & Yarrow, F. (2000). Paired writing: A framework for effective collaboration. Reading, 34 , 79-89. Retrieved September 07, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4374398&site=ehost-live