Wampum
Wampum refers to traditional beads and belts made primarily from the shells of clams and whelks, which have significant cultural and historical importance among various Indigenous peoples of North America, particularly along the Atlantic seaboard. The term itself originates from New England settlers, who adapted an Algonquin word meaning "a string of white beads." While wampum was initially crafted for practical purposes, such as documentation of treaties and significant events, it also evolved into an art form and a means of personal adornment. Particularly among the Iroquois, wampum served as a vital tool for official communication and cultural ceremonies, with distinct designs representing different nations and historical moments. Despite misconceptions, wampum was not originally used as currency; this practice was introduced by colonial settlers. The crafting of wampum involves a labor-intensive process and is often characterized by its intricate designs and symbolism. While many traditional wampum pieces are now housed in museums, they continue to hold deep meaning within Indigenous communities, symbolizing unity and cultural heritage.
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Subject Terms
Wampum
Tribes affected: Widespread but not pantribal
Significance: Native Americans used wampum to record the lives of significant people, tribal laws and events, and treaties or alliances
The historical literature points out that the term “wampum” is not an Indian one. Instead, wampum was coined from New England settlers who shortened an Algonquin term, Wampumpeag, meaning a string of white beads. In the Seneca language, it is called Otekoa, a name for a small freshwater spiral shell. Wampum has been described as finely embroidered belts or strings, many with glass beads that were typically cylindrically shaped, about one-fourth of an inch long and half that in diameter. The original bead, before glass ones were introduced, was purported to be a round clam shell (called quahog) that was traditionally drilled by hand, using stone or reed drills, before iron drill bits came from Europeans. Porcupine quills and animal whiskers were also traditionally used, and the Mohawks claim that even eagle feathers were earlier evident in wampum.
The first to use wampum were the coastal Indians along the Atlantic seaboard and the New England indigenous peoples. The Long Island Indians were especially noted for their skill in manufacturing wampum, which took a lot of labor and patience in a time-consuming process. The belts and strings could be of varying length and width, depending on their representative purpose. Five- to ten-foot lengths of wampum could be made in one day. Wampum strings were made from bark or leather, and later beaver skins and painted sticks were utilized.
The native nations primarily used wampum for commercial relations, often symbolizing a ritualization of reciprocity. It was only later that the belts were made for ornamentation or adornment to wear as jewelry, which eventually led them to be viewed as craft art showpieces for exhibition. A wampum myth is that the term is synonymous with “Indian money”—the traditional Indian societies never used it as currency. It was actually American colonialists who were the first to initiate its use as money. The Dutch, in 1627, were the first to produce counterfeit wampum.
Wampum was originally used for documentation and recordkeeping of significant events and agreements, such as treaties between two sociopolitical entities, as well as seals of friendship. They were also viewed as certificates of authority and credentials that guaranteed a message or promise. They were thought of as ritual ratification when accompanying treaties or alliances, which may have involved emigration, a prisoner’s ransom, or the extradition of a criminal. The Iroquois used wampum for both official communication and religious purposes. According to their oral history, it was introduced to the Eastern Woodland nations by Hiawatha at the time of the founding of the League of the Five Nations.
The Iroquois Council meetings were recorded with wampum, and there were Wampum Keepers who kept the records among the Onondaga Nation. At special councils, these recordkeepers would recite the message or law that went with a particular wampum to a gathering of the people. It is also said that the Great Orator first introduced wampum to the Mohawks to bring binding peace among disagreeing parties, and to take the place of the shedding of blood.
Each people among the Iroquois traditionally had a unique design of wampum that was to represent their respective nation. It is also said that traditionally every chief of the Iroquois Confederacy and every clan mother had a designated wampum as a certificate of his or her esteemed office. Wampum could also be named for an individual important to the confederacy or a particular membership group among the people of the nations. Some of the most well-known wampum belts are named after significant events in tribal history.
Even though a few native individuals still act as guardians of certain wampum belts and strings, most of those that have not been lost are found in glass-enclosed showcases in U.S. museums. A very few non-Indians may even have one or two in their own private possession as collector’s items, but this is unusual. The traditional meaning and use of wampum has been denigrated by American law and policy. Its mnemonic significance is still a powerful one of unity and hope for the future among those native nations who still honor its sacred symbolism, if not its secular use in rituals of ratification and reciprocity.
Bibliography
Beauchamp, W. M. “Wampum Used in Council and as Currency.” American Antiquarian 20, no. 1 (January/February, 1931): 1-13.
Fenton, W. N. “The New York State Wampum Collection: The Case for the Integrity of Cultural Treasures.” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 115, no. 6 (December, 1983): 437-461.
Haas, Angela M. "Wampum as Hypertext: An American Indian Intellectual Tradition of Multimedia Theory and Practice." Studies in American Indian Literatures, vol. 19, no. 4, 2007, pp. 77–97. Project Muse, muse.jhu.edu/article/235980. Accessed 17 Oct. 2017.
Tehanetorens. Wampum Belts. Reprint. Ohsweken, Ontario: Iroqrafts, 1983.
Tweedy, Ann. C. "From Beads to Bounty: How Wampum Became America’s First Currency—And Lost Its Power." Indian Country Today, 5 Oct. 2017, indiancountrymedianetwork.com/history/genealogy/from-beads-to-bounty-how-wampum-became-americas-first-currencyand-lost-its-power. Accessed 17 Oct. 2017.
"Wampum." Onondaga Nation, 2017, www.onondaganation.org/culture/wampum. Accessed 17 Oct. 2017.