Assimilation

Assimilation is the process by which immigrants become part of the mainstream culture of their new country, lessening the differences between immigrants and native born Americans. Research often distinguishes between cultural assimilation, in which ethnic and cultural norms from the previous country become less prevalent, and other factors such as socioeconomic success and educational equity, referred to under the umbrella of structural assimilation. Assimilation, especially cultural assimilation, has been a controversial debate in American policy making, affecting education, health policy, and other areas. Previously, many believed that total assimilation was necessary for the healthy functioning of American society. Today, many embrace multicultural or segmented assimilation theories, which view multiculturalism and distinct ethnic identity as a strength rather than a weakness.

Keywords Assimilation; Cultural Assimilation; Immigrant; Melting Pot; Multiculturalism; Pluralism; Segmented Assimilation; Socioeconomic Status; Structural Assimilation

Race & Ethnicity > Assimilation

Overview

Assimilation is the process by which immigrants to the United States become part of mainstream American culture, lessening the distinctions between the various ethnic and racial groups. There are several characteristics by which assimilation of an individual or group is measured, including language proficiency, the decision to become a citizen, and the concentration of ethnic groups in any one geographic region or area. Immigrants are classified as those who have relocated from their country of birth to live and work in another country. The immigration rate in the United States is measured by the percentage of those who were born outside of the country who are currently residing in the United States, either legally or illegally (Wadsworth & Kubrin, 2007).

Immigration has been a significant issue throughout United States history. Historically, the United States has been a country of immigrants, with groups of people coming to live in and work in the country from all over the world. Many countries' citizens have also been barred from entering the United States by various laws throughout the course of history. Immigrant groups have faced and continue to battle racism and negative treatment subsequent to entering the United States.

Today, immigration to the United States has changed drastically from the first half of the twentieth century. Since a low point in the 1940s, the immigration rate has risen dramatically. The population of immigrants in the United States has quadrupled since 1970 and doubled in number since 1990. Furthermore, today's immigrants differ in ethnicity, skills, and education. Most immigrants in the early 1900s emigrated from Europe, and were largely Caucasian. In 2011, most immigrants entered the United States from Latin America and all over Asia (Vigdor, 2008; Office of Immigration Statistics [OIS], 2012). Immigration continues to be a salient policy issue because there continues to be no consensus on whether immigrants have a positive or negative impact on United States society.

The idea of assimilation has been connected to the metaphor of a "melting pot," or a blurring of differences between different ethnic and racial groups, creating a society where one group cannot necessarily be differentiated from another. Conversely, the idea of pluralism encourages retaining ethnic differences, embracing various aspects of one's original ethnicity and culture, and celebrating the diversity as a unique attribute to the United States. A poll taken in 1994 found that the country evenly supported assimilation, pluralism, and a blend of the two (Spain, 1999). A Gallup poll conducted in 2012 found that 66 percent of American respondents thought that immigration was a positive thing for the United States (Jones, 2012).

Research regarding immigration and its impact on society has laid the foundations of American sociology. Generally, sociologists recognize three distinct groups of immigrants who entered the United States. The first group, mostly northern and western Europeans, immigrated up to the nineteenth century to set up the American colonies, states, and to move westward. These groups often made their living as farmers. Subsequently, from the end of the nineteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth, the United States experienced massive industrialization. Immigrants to the United States during this period were largely from southern and eastern Europe, settling in urban areas of the country. Finally, in the post-1965 era of immigration, following the 1965 Immigration Act, immigrants entered the United States largely from Latin America and Asia, and new immigrants were largely focused on service professions. Sociologists also recognize and study the south to north migration of black Americans during the beginning of the twentieth century (Pedraza, 2005).

Those who study assimilation often distinguish between socioeconomic, cultural, and structural assimilation, in addition to other categories, and there are several assimilation theories that have been developed. Until recently, complete assimilation has been seen as imperative to the success of our economy and society (Portes & Zhou, 1993).

Further Insights

Socioeconomic Assimilation

Socioeconomic status refers to the "measure of an individual or family's relative economic and social ranking" (NCES, 2008). The three major measures of socioeconomic status in the United States include education level, occupation, and income level. When discussing the economic success of immigrants, assimilation experts refer to these measures. In a society in which all immigrants were completely socioeconomically assimilated, there would appear to be little or no differences in socioeconomic status between immigrants and native born individuals and families (Spain, 1999).

Vigdor (2008) presents a report measuring the socioeconomic similarities and differences between native-born and foreign-born adults in the United States. Utilizing census data since 1900, many differences have emerged in socioeconomic measures of assimilation rates since the turn of the twentieth century. The study analyzes data regarding education, home ownership, English-speaking ability, naturalization rates, and marriage patterns. The study also found that immigrants who have arrived in more recent years are more likely to arrive less assimilated; however, non-native born individuals assimilate at a quicker rate than in the past, especially culturally.

Further research shows that immigrants in the United States are slightly more likely than non-immigrants to hold an advanced degree; however, native-born individuals are much more likely to have a high school diploma. Additionally, low-skilled immigrants who enter the country are much less likely than native-born individuals to be unemployed (Orrenius, 2004).

Studies have also found that immigrants become economically assimilated after living in the United States for approximately sixteen to twenty years, reaching the socioeconomic levels of those who are native born. Research has also suggested that non-Hispanic groups make the largest gains in education, but Hispanic groups made the most overall economic gains from generation to generation (Orrenius, 2004).

Cultural & Structural Assimilation

Cultural assimilation refers to the assimilation of cultural patterns, including language and value systems. Structural assimilation refers to the assimilation of non-native-born individuals and their families into the structural customs of American society, including intermarriage. In the past, cultural and structural assimilation has been seen as necessary to the economic and social health of the country, but also as a process by which non-native-born individuals and families merge themselves into American mainstream society (Pedraza, 2003).

Transnationalism & Diasporic Citizenship

Today, many sociologists have refocused from classical theories of assimilation towards "transnationalism" and "diasporic citizenship." Transnationalism and diasporic citizenship refer to the "process by which immigrants forge and sustain multi stranded social relations that link together their societies of origin and settlement" (Basch, Schiller, & Szanton, 1993) and the "set of practices that a person is engaged in and a set of rights acquired or appropriated that cross nation-state boundaries and that indicate membership in at least two nation states" (Laguerre, 1998), respectively.

Previously, classical theories of assimilation held that immigrants became more assimilated into mainstream American culture the longer they resided in the United States. However, newer theories of assimilation differ. For example, transnationalism and diasporic citizenship purport that during the assimilation process, the immigrant not only adopts customs and practices of the society into which they are integrating, but they also change and enrich the society in which they live by introducing different customs and points of view. Furthermore, these theories contend that many immigrants do not completely assimilate culturally or structurally, choosing to retain parts of their identity prior to arrival in the United States and create hybrid identities that meld aspects of both cultures into one, and also help transform embedded cultures and structures. Many researchers argue that these practices have actually been common for many years, but until recently have rarely been formally studied.

Sociologists also now study varying paths of assimilation, and argue that individuals and different segments of the population assimilate at varying rates depending on a variety of factors. Thus, understanding the assimilation process has become much more complex and not only involves whether an immigrant group has become assimilated but also which groups are assimilating and the degree to which they are assimilating.

Theories of Assimilation

Classical Theory

The classical theory of assimilation, attributed largely to Gordon (1964), viewed assimilation into mainstream culture as imperative to success of the immigrant and for the rest of the country. The primary step towards success was cultural assimilation, which was purported to lead to other types of assimilation, though this did not always occur. Gordon (1964) also acknowledged that complete assimilation was dependent on reception from and recognition by the principal population, or white Americans.

Classical assimilation theory viewed being able to distinguish ethnic differences and traits of immigrants as detrimental to the individual and the larger society. However, beginning in the 1960s, classical assimilation was challenged due to the many anomalies that were observed in immigrant populations. First, classical assimilation theorists argued that the longer one stayed in a country, the more assimilated one became; that this trend would follow across generations; and that children of immigrants would see more economic success than their parents. However, recent studies found opposite patterns as well. Additionally, educational success declined in certain cases, especially children from less fortunate immigrant families in comparison to those in the middle class. Certain immigrant groups and families were consistently found to have lower educational success. Even those who were successful were sometimes seen to exhibit high risk behaviors such as involvement in gang activity (Zhou, 1993).

As a result of these anomalies, critics of classical assimilation argue that complete assimilation of an individual into mainstream culture may actually be harmful and have a negative impact on the individual and society. This view has spawned another theory of assimilation, the segmented theory of assimilation, which argues that there are three paths that an individual can follow when they immigrate:

• Acculturation and integration into the middle class,
• Assimilation into the lower class resulting in permanent poverty, or
• Economic advancement while consciously holding onto aspects of their previous culture (Zhou, 1997).

Many experts, often called multiculturalists, believe distinct cultural attributes are not and should not be seen as inferior and harmful to the individual or society.

Zhou (1997) also points out that while immigrant groups to the United States have changed, so have the opportunities available to them. Immigrants today come to a vastly different country than those who arrived in the late 1800s and early 1900s. In the last half century, we have seen a widening gap between the rich and poor, a severe distinction and concentration of poverty in inner cities, lower class mobility, and availability of educational and economic resources are closely tied to current socioeconomic status and race and ethnicity.

Multiculturalism

The topic of assimilation, especially cultural assimilation, has had a great impact on various policy issues, including immigration, education, health care, and government aid programs. In the past, there was much support for classical assimilation theory—that immigrants would leave their customs and culture behind, and become "Americans." In recent years however, there has been a movement towards multiculturalism and acceptance of new cultures and practices into American culture. Those who support multiculturalism focus on the cultural aspects of immigrant patterns, recognizing that they often become a permanent part of American society, reinvented from the original culture to meld into a new society (Zhou, 1997).

Education & Assimilation

Research has also focused on the effects of different levels and types of assimilation on a variety of factors. Previously, educators and policymakers held the belief that retaining one's customs and traditions and not assimilating completely into American culture would hinder one's academic performance. There was an assumption that it was impossible to successfully manage being a part of both cultures at once, and that those who clung to their previous traditions would not become familiar let alone embrace aspects of American culture. However, studies have actually shown the opposite to be true—students who retain aspects of their culture and background previous to arriving in the United States actually perform at a higher educational level. Immigrant students can become skilled at utilizing resources in aspects of each culture and community, successfully navigating both to assist in their educational aspirations. Additionally, bilingualism has also been shown to boost a child's ability to think and learn complex subjects, and contribute to the success of their education (Akiba, 2007).

Schools have played the largest role for assimilating immigrant children into the culture of the United States. In the early twentieth century, America was known as a melting pot—a country where many people arrived, and blended with a new culture to form a new identity. The binding of this melting pot was the language, English, and schools were the primary purveyors of the language as well as transmitting the knowledge and values of American culture to immigrants. However, many argue today that assimilation into the mainstream culture is in the best interest of the country.

Educationally, there has been an increased movement towards accepting a variety of cultures and backgrounds. Globalization of the economy and the subsequent increased exposure to different cultures in the latter half of the twentieth century has contributed to the trend towards the incorporation of multiculturalism in educational practices. This is a departure from the early portion of the twentieth century, when immigrant families felt the pressure to completely leave their culture behind, to become as Americanized as possible, including disposing of language and customs (Akiba, 2007). Souto-Manning (2007) also cites research that shows that speaking multiple languages is an academic resource and not a detriment.

Other studies have researched different types of assimilation, and how they impact non-native individuals and families. Vigdor (2008) reports on economic and civic assimilation versus cultural assimilation of immigrants, finding that the former can often occur successfully without the latter. In other words, studies have found that immigrants can attain socioeconomic levels similar to that of native-born individuals and families, while participating and engaging in their new communities, while holding onto their previous culture and customs. However, studies have also found that post-1995 immigrants to the United States are assimilating faster, culturally, than those who came before them.

Issues

Growing Hispanic Immigration

As the Latino and Hispanic populations in the United States have vastly increased in numbers over the years due to increased immigration, the concerns of policymakers and researchers have also grown regarding the assimilation process for Latino and Hispanic groups. Souto-Manning (2007) cites research that found children of Mexican immigrants had a high failure rate in American schools. Rather than actually having academic deficiencies, researchers also suggest that these groups are seen by their teachers and schools as missing certain skills and having a lack of knowledge. Vigdor (2008) also found that Mexican immigrants assimilate more slowly than other immigrant groups, and that while rates for of cultural assimilation for this group is normal, economic and civic assimilation are much lower than other immigrant groups. There is much research to be accomplished in this area, as immigrant demographics are shifting rapidly in the United States, and educating immigrant populations will continue to be a serious educational policy issue in the years to come.

Suicide

The discussion of immigration additionally impacts policies on health and health care. For example, researchers have argued that immigrants are at an increased risk for suicide compared to native-born individuals due to the emotional and economic stress of living and working in another country, leaving behind customs and family when immigrating to the United States. Countering those arguments are those who believe that immigrants would have lower suicide rates due to their resiliency and increased ability to overcome obstacles. Wadsworth & Kubrin (2007) report that suicide rates in the Hispanic community may be related to cultural assimilation—the higher the rates of cultural assimilation, the higher the suicide rate. However, economic assimilation, for Hispanics and all other groups, decreases the rate of suicide. Additional research into the protective factors offered by retaining certain parts of one's cultural and ethnic identity, while also increasing one's economic stability and civic engagement, is a necessary step to discover more about these health policy concerns.

Generational Factors

Matters of generational differences also come to light when discussing assimilation. Zhou (1997) focuses on a middle ground between the classical assimilationist theory that concentrates on immigrants assimilating totally into mainstream culture, and multiculturalists who support immigrants reshaping and reinventing their cultures, and permanently integrating them to be a part of American society. This theory, called segmented assimilation theory, centers on a variety of individual factors that influence how immigrants assimilate, including educational level, language, the age of the individual when they immigrate, length of residency, and other factors such as socioeconomic status, location in the United States, and racial/ethnic background.

Zhou (1997) recognizes that immigrants and their willingness and ability to assimilate culturally may depend heavily upon the aforementioned factors. For example, younger immigrants may assimilate at a faster rate than their elders. However, this may also lead to generational dissonance, increasing conflict within families. Increased assimilation by immigrant youth may also divest them of the resources within their family and within immigrant group communities which potentially act as protective factors for various negative behaviors, including drug abuse, suicide, and gang involvement. However, in other ways, belonging to an ethnic community may hinder other important assimilation processes, such as socioeconomic assimilation.

Segmented Assimilation

Segmented assimilation theory can be seen as a middle ground between classical assimilation and multiculturalism—immigrants and how they assimilate into mainstream culture is certainly a complex issue that encompasses social, economic, and cultural factors. It also appears that all types of assimilation are not always beneficial to an immigrant. The benefits are heavily dependent on a host of other important factors, both constant and shifting.

Immigration and assimilation are increasingly complex issues in an era of shifting demographics and immigrant patterns, as the world becomes more familiar and accommodating of various groups and identities. The assimilation debate is multifaceted and encompasses policies in education, health, and civic engagement. Questions linked to assimilation include how students should be taught in schools, how much money and resources schools and government agencies should spend on communicating with those who speak other languages besides English, and what message should be sent about assimilating culturally versus economically versus structurally once arriving in the United States. These questions, and others like them, will continue to have a strong impact on how immigrants are treated in the United States, not only when they first enter the country, but as they continue to live, work, and raise families. The policies created in answer to these questions will affect one's ability to receive an education, work, and rewarding personal lives. While assimilation has been studied for many years, there continues to be questions left to answer, and research will continue to shed light on the debate.

Terms & Concepts

Assimilation: Assimilation is the process by which immigrants become part of the culture of their new country.

Cultural Assimilation: Cultural assimilation refers to relinquishing one's own cultural norms and embracing the new cultural norms of the country one immigrates to.

Immigrant: An immigrant is an individual who currently resides in a country other than the individual’s country of birth.

Melting Pot: The melting pot is a term referring to the widely accepted notion that America's culture was built on the premise that those who immigrated would give up their customs to become part of American culture.

Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism supports retaining certain aspects of one's culture after immigration.

Segmented Assimilation: Segmented assimilation argues that not all immigrants can assimilate at the same rate, nor is it beneficial for all immigrants to assimilate culturally.

Socioeconomic Status: Socioeconomic status refers the economic/social ranking of a family, individual, or group.

Structural Assimilation: Structural assimilation factors include structural customs including marriage patterns and place of residency.

Bibliography

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Basch, L., Schiller, N. & Szanton Blanc, C. (1993). Nations unbound: Transnational projects, postcolonial predicaments, and deterritorialized nation states. New York: Routledge.

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Jones, Jeffrey M (2012). Americans more positive about immigration. Retrieved October 23, 2013 from http://www.gallup.com/poll/155210/Americans-Positive-Immigration.aspx

Laguerre, M. S. (1998). Diasporic citizenship: Haitian Americans in transnational America. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2008). Glossary. Retrieved September 1, 2008, from National Center of Education Statistics Web Site: http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/glossary/s.asp.

Office of Immigration Statistics (2012). 2011 yearbook of immigration statistics. Retrieved October 23, 2013 from http://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2011/ois%5Fyb%5F2011.pdf

Orrenius, P. M. (2003). U.S. Immigration and economic growth: Putting policy on hold. Southwest Economy, 6, 1-5.

Pedraza, S. (2005). Assimilation or transnationalism? Conceptual models of the immigrant experience in America. Retrieved September 1, 2008, from The University of Texas website: http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/asce/pdfs/volume15/pdfs/pedraza.pdf.

Portes, A. & Zhou, M. (1993). The new second generation: Segmented assimilation and its variants among post-1965 immigrant youth. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 530, 74-98.

Restifo, S. J., Roscigno, V. J., & Qian, Z. (2013). Segmented assimilation, split labor markets, and racial/ethnic inequality: The case of early-twentieth-century New York. American Sociological Review, 78, 897-924. Retrieved October 23, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=90495289

Souto-Manning, M. (2007). Immigrant families and children (re)develop identities in a new context. Early Childhood Education Journal, 34, 399-405. Retrieved September 1, 2008, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24962468&site=ehost-live

Wadsworth, T. & Kubrin, C.E. (2007). Hispanic suicide in U.S. metropolitan areas: Examining the effects of immigration, assimilation, affluence, and disadvantage. American Journal of Sociology, 112,1848-1885. Retrieved September 1, 2008, from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=25381861&site=ehost-live

Vigdor, J.L. (2008, May). Executive Summary. Measuring immigrant assimilation in the United States. Civic Report 53. Retrieved September 1, 2008, from Manhattan Institute for Policy Research Web Site: http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cr%5f53.htm.

Zhou, M. (1997). Segmented assimilation: Issues, controversies and recent research on the new second generation. International Migration Review, 31, 975-1008.

Suggested Reading

Archdeacon, T. J. (1983). Becoming American: An ethnic history. New York: The Free Press.

Berrol, S. C. (1995). Growing up American: Immigrant children in America, then and now. New York: Twayne Publishers.

Booth, A., Crouter, A. C., & Landale, N. (ed.). (1997). Immigration and the family: Research and policy on US. immigrants. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.

Hatton, T. J. (1997). The immigrant assimilation puzzle in late nineteenth-century America. Journal of Economic History, 57, 34-62.

Kwok-bun, C., & Plüss, C. (2013). Modeling migrant adaptation: Coping with social strain, assimilation, and non-integration. International Sociology, 28, 48-65. Retrieved October 23, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=84945089

Ogbu, J. U. (1991). Minority status and schooling: A comparative study of immigrant and involuntary minorities. New York: Garland Publishing.

Perlmann, J. & Waldinger, R. (1996). Second generation decline? Children of immigrants, past and present—a reconsideration. International Migration Review, 31, 893-922.

Xi, J. (2013). English fluency of the US immigrants: Assimilation effects, cohort variations, and periodical changes. Social Science Research, 42, 1109-1121. Retrieved October 23, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=88985692