Cultural Prejudice and Discrimination

Abstract

Cultural prejudice and discrimination continue to present complex challenges in American society. One of the great barriers to tackling issues of racial discrimination in the United States is the legacy of the transatlantic slave trade. The effects of slavery were not resolved with emancipation or with the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Prejudice and discrimination against people of color persist in America. Along with problems experienced by Black Americans, people of other cultural backgrounds, such as Jewish people, Hispanic Americans, people with disabilities, and many others, have experienced widespread discrimination. America's immigration policy introduced millions of people into the country but also resulted in increased prejudice and discrimination among disparate cultures. These problems continue in American society in the twenty-first century.

Overview

Prejudice is the belief or perception that people of different cultures are inferior or have negative characteristics because of their skin color, religious beliefs, or cultural background. Discrimination is the act of denying someone their rights on the basis of prejudice.

The Impact of Slavery. In the United States, the legacy of slavery has resulted in tremendous suffering. The social and political upheaval caused by slavery led to the Civil War, one of the bloodiest chapters in American history. When emancipation came, 350 years of abuse and enslavement could not be easily forgotten. On January 1, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln abolished slavery, but Black Americans continued to suffer from discrimination throughout the twentieth century and into the twenty-first century.

Continued Segregation. From 1863 until 1964, America was a segregated society. Black Americans were forced to sit at the back of buses, were prevented from attending White schools, had to drink at separate water fountains, and were forced to eat in racially-designated restaurants. Moreover, Black Americans were prevented from attending certain universities and colleges and from holding various forms of employment.

Landmark legislative efforts, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, helped to lessen the legacy of prejudice and discrimination suffered by Black Americans. Affirmative action initiatives have worked to redress the inequality Black Americans have faced in education, housing, and employment. Despite these efforts systemic and institutionalized racism continued to exist for Black Americans in the twenty-first century.

American Indians & Prejudice. When British settlers first landed in North America, they appropriated land from American Indians. Untold numbers of American Indians were slaughtered or forced to relocate as a result of British and American colonization. Some American Indian stereotypes remained prevalent. Many television programs and movies continued to portray American Indians in a negative or stereotypical light throughout the twentieth century, perpetuating false and romanticized images.

History textbooks that discussed the European discovery of the Americas often revealed a Eurocentric bias that disregarded the histories of the Indigenous nations of North America. The media exploited American Indian cultural and spiritual traditions for profit. Some 'New Age' spiritual guides also committed this error, which many American Indians found offensive (Almeida, 1996, p. 4). Though the culture and history of American Indians has become a respected part of American society in the twenty-first century, American Indians are still recovering from the discrimination and prejudice they faced for centuries. Like Black Americans, American Indians often face institutionalized racism and have disproportionate interactions with law enforcement (Neel, 2017).

Anti-Semitism. Although Jewish people are well integrated into American life, they still face prejudice and discrimination. Cohen (2008) states, "Anti-Semitism is a form of race or national prejudice that crystallized in the nineteenth century." (Cohen, 2008, pp. 48-49).

Historical stereotypes of Jews are deeply ingrained in Western culture. Research suggests that one of the reasons for prejudice against Jewish people is that some Christians have developed and promulgated the misconception that Judaism challenges the values of Christianity. In 2022, the Anti-Defamation League reported an over 30 percent increase in anti-Semitic incidents in the United States, indicating anti-Semitism is still a force in American society (Bennett, 2023).

These groups represent a historical cross-section of maligned racial and cultural groups in the United States, but others also exist. Following the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020, Asian Americans saw an increase in prejudice and discrimination as well, not unlike the situation of Arab Americans following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks.

Further Insights

Although Friedman (2007) did not necessarily disagree with this theory, he stated that prejudice and discrimination were an innate part of the human condition. It was his belief that they had always been a part of human society.

Scapegoating. Friedman (2007) theorized that scapegoats and prejudicial stereotyping were psychologically based. He cited the fact that societies usually developed scapegoats and strong prejudicial beliefs about certain minority groups during difficult social and economic times. He went on to state that even the most rational person could develop prejudicial attitudes under stress. Times of great stress and economic uncertainty could lead people to become less logical, even paranoid, and at risk of developing prejudicial attitudes. Discriminatory acts often followed.

Media Stereotyping: Islamophobia & September 11th. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, caused a nationwide increase in discrimination against Arab Americans. In response to the fact that the attacks were undertaken by Islamic fundamentalists, political organizations and individuals throughout America chose to take out their anger on the larger American Islamic community. Many Muslim Americans and Arab Americans were forced into the position of defending their faith and themselves. Verma (2005), a teacher of South Asian background, commented on the ways in which Arab Americans and Arabic people in general were the victims of prejudice after 9/11: "I have observed trends in television, radio, and print media that saturate popular culture with images of terror and war and encourage racial stereotyping" (Verma, 2005, p. 12).

One of the more damaging and unfortunate results of 9/11 was the stereotyping of people of Arabic background, assumptions made about their culture based on the actions of a few people. As Verma stated, segments of American media culture engaged in a dramatic spectacle and a disinformation campaign that dehumanized and victimized Arab Americans and portrayed stereotypical images of the "civilized West" and "barbaric Arabs." Rallying and mobilizing fear of this fabricated vision of evil, these representations contributed to a discourse of violence against Arabs and others who resembled them (Verma, 2005, p. 12).

Other individuals, people of color who may look Arabic, were also discriminated against. This is the insidious way in which stereotyping works. A negative perception is developed, it becomes embedded in popular culture through the media (and especially with the widespread and immediate power of the Internet and social media), and the stereotype becomes real to far too many people. Verma (2005) pointed out that one of the more dangerous symptoms of stereotyping and prejudice is hate crimes.

Salaita (2005) suggested that the passage of the Patriot Act contributed to making Arab Americans feel discriminated against and unwanted in America. Suddenly, the spotlight was on them to defend themselves even if they had not done anything. He also suggested that many felt their patriotism toward America was being questioned, and they were often discriminated against with the use of racial profiling. People of Arabic background became a target for those who feared terrorist violence.

Black Lives Matter Movement. New attention was brought to the issues of cultural prejudice and discrimination following the murders of Eric Garner, Breonna Taylor, George Floyd, and other Black Americans whose deaths by police officers became highly visible in the media, leading to the creation of the Black Lives Matter movement in 2013. The movement highlighted the deeply rooted systemic racism entrenched in the US and its severe impact on Black Americans. Thousands of protests broke out across the US and the world in support of the movement. The work of the Black Lives Matter movement continued into the 2020s as inciting incidents between people of color and law enforcement showed little sign of abating (Black Lives Matter, n.d.).

Viewpoints

Eliminating Cultural Prejudice & Discrimination. The primary question that emanates from this research is, 'how can we effectively cope with and eliminate prejudice and discrimination'? While the first is certainly possible, the latter may not be probable. America's history is rife with racial prejudice and discrimination. It seems that our differences divide us rather than give us strength and the desire to learn about one another. There are practical steps that can be taken. The recurring theme in this essay is a lack of understanding of different cultural groups. Almeida (1996) and Fleming (2006) pointed out that the average American knows little to nothing about American Indians and their cultures. The research of Gross (2008) highlighted the need to understand prejudice and discrimination in a racial context and the importance of slavery to history. Verma (2005) wrote about the implications of 9/11 and the stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination against Arab Americans that followed.

Research by Zebrowitz (2008) on exposure to people of other races suggested that when people had greater exposure to persons of various races, they had a reduced tendency to develop ideas of racial prejudice. Thus, it is perhaps, at least to some degree, the fact that many people do not have direct connections with persons of other racial and ethnic backgrounds that increases tendencies towards prejudice and discrimination. Utsey, Ponterotto, and Porter (2008) stated that there was a need for social scientists to conduct in-depth research into the connections between racism, prejudice, and discrimination in order to develop a better understanding of how they work and possible social remedies.

All of these researchers suggest a similar theme; a need for more education and understanding of other cultures, their ways of life, their belief systems, and the historical context for their lives in the twenty-first century. Education must start with young Americans of all races, cultures, and ethnicities. Children must be given an opportunity to celebrate their own backgrounds while learning to respect the diverse nature of their peers in American society. This increased education coupled with greater exposure may be a path toward eliminating prejudice and discrimination among cultures.

Conclusion

Barriers to Eliminating Cultural Prejudice. One of the major barriers to eliminating prejudice and discrimination against American Indians is a lack of knowledge about their cultures. White people often make the mistake of generalizing about American Indians as if there is one big 'culture' that embraces all American Indian tribes. This is something that sociologists and social anthropologists have been trying to change through their direct studies of American Indian cultures. The second major barrier is the distinct lack of American Indians in positions of authority and power in American society. There are very few American Indians in Congress, the Senate, or serving as governors. In addition, there are fewer American Indian teachers and university professors, so their cultural knowledge is not being introduced to mainstream American educational institutions. This means that we are still hearing about American Indian issues from White voices; rarely do we hear about them from American Indian voices. Change is possible, however. In 2019, American Indian author and activist became the 23rd poet laureate of the United States and the first American Indian to hold the position.

The Debate on Reparations. One of the primary issues in the twenty-first century is that of reparations. According to Gross (2008),

"An emphasis on the continuing legacies of slavery animates all arguments in favor of reparations for slavery, but these have taken three forms with regard to legal claim: debt (contract), unjust enrichment (restitution), or corrective justice (tort). All three of these legal and moral approaches rely on a version of history in which slavery is the direct cause of continuing harm" (Gross, 2008, p. 305).

There are opinions on both sides of the debate on reparations. One side argues that this would provide a sense of redress—that is, correcting the injustice of slavery. The other side of the argument claims that reparations for slavery do a disservice to Black Americans and suggest that injustice toward Black Americans was only in the past, a fact that is blatantly untrue (Gross, 2008). Yet, there is no denying that the legacy of slavery continues to affect the lives of Black Americans and that the stereotypes of centuries ago have not yet been fully destroyed. As Gross (2008) stated:

"Slavery is still the touchstone for all of our discussions about race in America—as it should be, because race was born out of slavery. It is our nation's original sin. Through the telling and retelling of the history of slavery, we judge our own responsibility for the continuing injustices of racial inequality" (p. 321).

Terms & Concepts

Affirmative Action: Not one law or one piece of legislation, but rather a series of initiatives and policies which have attempted to redress the social, political, and economic disadvantages that people such as Black Americans have endured.

Anti-Semitism: Prejudicial attitudes, stereotyping, and discrimination towards people of the Jewish faith and culture.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: This was the piece of legislation that finally made segregation illegal in America. Schools, public places, and places of employment were now expected to fully integrate Black Americans, and it became illegal not to.

Emancipation Proclamation: The declaration made by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, which effectively abolished slavery in America.

Discrimination: To treat a person or group of people with prejudice.

Hate Crimes: Crimes committed by someone against another person because of their inclusion in a specific group or culture. Hate crimes have been and continue to be perpetrated on people of color, people who are gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, Arab Americans, Jewish people, and others.

Islamophobia: The prejudice and discrimination leveled at people who practice the faith of Islam or those people known as Muslims.

Patriot Act: Enacted by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001, as a response to the events of 9/11. It has been a controversial piece of legislation that has given the country's law enforcement agencies enormous power to try to deal with and weed out any potential acts of terrorism at home or abroad.

Prejudice: When we make a judgment about someone or something without having the facts. Racial prejudice is to make assumptions or hold specific beliefs about a person or group based on a lack of information. We often think of it as outright hostility or hatred for a person or group based on race.

Racial Profiling: To use racial characteristics when considering whether someone is likely to commit a certain type of crime.

Racism: The belief that a person's race is the source of their attributes or characteristics. It also promotes the notion that certain races are superior while others are inferior and that race is a determinant of this superiority or inferiority.

Scapegoating: Used to describe the blaming of a culture or other group of people for the dominant culture or country's social ills. It is a means to deflect from the real and root causes of the problem.

Stereotype: A notion, conception, idea, or image that someone has of another person, group, or culture based on assumptions and misconceptions. They are usually overly simplified ideas and generalizations about a group of people that have no basis in reality.

Zionism: Refers to the international political movement to create a homeland for Jewish people. It gained international support after World War II.

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Suggested Reading

Chin, J. L. (2004). The psychology of prejudice and discrimination . Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers.

Borgida, E. & Fiske, S. (Eds.). Beyond common sense. Boston, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.

Payne, J. (2007). The function of public policy. International Journal of Diversity in Organisations, Communities & Nations, 6 , 23-29. Retrieved August 4, 2008 from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=28652540&site=ehost-live

Reicher, S. (2007). Rethinking the paradigm of prejudice. South African Journal of Psychology, 37 , 820-834. Retrieved August 4, 2008 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=27615760&site=ehost-live

Simpson, G. E., & Yinger, J. M. (1965). Racial and cultural minorities: An analysis of prejudice and discrimination, Third Edition. New York, N.Y. : Harper & Row.

Waller, J. & Brinkley, D. (2000). Prejudice across America. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi.