Direct institutionalized discrimination
Direct institutionalized discrimination refers to the systematic and intentional practices that result in the unfavorable treatment of specific groups within societal structures, such as education, housing, and the economy. This form of discrimination is characterized by policies or actions that are designed to disadvantage particular racial or ethnic communities, often embedding inequality within the fabric of institutions. For instance, historical examples include the discriminatory policies of real estate organizations in the early 20th century that restricted the sale of homes to certain racial groups, severely limiting opportunities for home ownership among Black Americans. Additionally, the legacy of segregated schooling systems in the United States shows how institutionalized practices have sustained disparities in educational resources and outcomes based on race. Despite legal advancements, such as the Fair Housing Act of 1968, the effects of past discrimination still resonate, leading to ongoing social and economic inequalities. Understanding direct institutionalized discrimination is crucial for recognizing and addressing the entrenched barriers that continue to affect marginalized communities today.
On this Page
Direct institutionalized discrimination
Discrimination is unfavorable treatment of a person or people because they are members of a certain group. It may be based on factors such as race or ethnicity, class, religion, sexual orientation, or gender identity, among others. Direct institutionalized discrimination involves the use of one or more social systems (education, the economy, religion) to oppress an entire group. American sociologists and social theorists, Joe R. Feagin and Clairece Booher Feagin, define direct institutionalized discrimination as “organizationally prescribed or community-prescribed action that by intention has a differential and negative impact on members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups.” Two examples will provide further clarification of this term.
According to Protest, Politics, and Prosperity: Black Americans and White Institutions, 1940-75 (1978) by Dorothy Newman and her colleagues, the National Association of Real Estate Boards “openly supported racial discrimination as a basic moral principle.” The association’s 1924 code of ethics stated, “A realtor should never be instrumental in introducing into a neighborhood . . . members of any race or nationality, or individual whose presence will clearly be detrimental to property values in that neighborhood.” Subsequently, this policy was supported by the Federal Housing Authority. Levittown, New York, the first of four Levittowns developed by World War II veteran William Levitt, was built to house fellow returning veterans, yet Black American soldiers were denied the opportunity to purchase these homes. Such overt housing discrimination was outlawed by the Fair Housing Act of 1968, but its consequences—high levels of residential segregation between White people and people of color, particularly African Americans—have persisted.
Past segregation of educational institutions in the United States, both de jure (legal) and de facto, also illustrates direct institutionalized discrimination. Vestiges of this type of discrimination have remained prevalent in twenty-first-century American society. Such discrimination has contributed to the ongoing disparity between schools serving mainly White populations and those attended primarily by students of color. Some sources in the early 2020s indicated that low-poverty school districts that served mostly White students spent an average of $2,000 more per student than low-poverty school districts serving Black minority students. This results in low-quality facilities, outdated or inadequate curricula, and poor academic performance outcomes.
Direct institutional discrimination is also evident in the healthcare system. Black women are four times more likely than White women to die while giving birth in the United States. Healthcare facilities located in marginalized communities have fewer resources and less funding, leading to an increased risk for not only pregnant women but all individuals, including those with chronic illnesses or undiagnosed conditions. Preventive care is also lacking.
Bibliography
Braveman, Paula A., et al. “Systemic and Structural Racism: Definitions, Examples, Health Damages, and Approaches to Dismantling.” Health Affairs (Project Hope), vol. 41, no. 2, 2022, pp. 171–78, doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2021.01394. Accessed 15 Dec. 2024.
Campbell, Colin, and Dale Smith. “Distinguishing between Direct and Indirect Discrimination.” Modern Law Review, vol. 86, no. 2, 2023, pp. 307–30, doi.org/10.1111/1468-2230.12760. Accessed 15 Dec. 2024.
Carter, Christine M. "Examples of Institutional Racism: What It Is and What You Can Do." Health, 22 Aug. 2024, www.health.com/mind-body/health-diversity-inclusion/institutional-racism. Accessed 15 Dec. 2024.
Feagin, Joe R., and Clairece Booher Feagin. Racial and Ethnic Relations. 10th ed., Prentice, 2019.
Kamali, Masoud. Racial Discrimination: Institutional Patterns and Politics. Routledge, 2009.
Massey, Douglas S., and Nancy A. Denton. American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Harvard UP, 1993.
Newman, Dorothy K., et al. "Protest, Politics, and Prosperity: Black Americans and White Institutions, 1940–75." Political Science Quarterly, vol. 93, no. 4, 1978, pp. 705–07, doi.org/10.2307/2150128. Accessed 15 Dec. 2024.
Pierre-Louis, Francois. "Institutional Racism." Race and Racism in the United States: An Encyclopedia of the American Mosaic, edited by Charles Gallagher and Cameron D. Lippard, ABC-CLIO, 2014, pp. 590–93.
Ramdeholl, Dianne, and Jaye Jones. Confronting Institutionalized Racism in Higher Education: Counternarratives for Racial Justice. Routledge, 2022.
Sharkey, Patrick. Stuck in Place: Urban Neighborhoods and the End of Progress toward Racial Equality. U of Chicago P, 2013.