History of Sociology: Modern Sociology

While nineteenth century sociology, also known as classical sociology, developed primarily in Europe, early twentieth century sociology emerged and developed as an influential discipline primarily in North America. The early modern American tradition of sociology was characterized by a focus on individualistic perspectives rather than social classes as a whole. The University of Chicago and Columbia University were among the first schools to create sociology departments, and their faculties, in conjunction with various professional societies, played a major role in shaping and defining the field. The influence of classical sociology on early twentieth century sociology can be seen in the latter's concern for discovering the universal laws of society and using the scientific method to investigate social phenomena.

Keywords Chicago School of Sociology; Giddings, Franklin; Industrialization; Small, Albion; Social Economy; Social Reform; Spencer, Herbert; Sumner, William; Urbanization; Ward, Lester

Modern Sociology

Overview

This essay encompasses the sociological theory and practice of the first half of the twentieth century. While nineteenth century sociology, also known as classical sociology, developed primarily in Europe, early twentieth century sociology emerged and developed as an influential discipline primarily in North America. The early modern American tradition of sociology was characterized by a focus on individualistic perspectives rather than social classes as a whole. European sociology, on the other hand, remained rather static during the early twentieth century due to the control exerted by Europe's totalitarian regimes and conservative universities. In the early twentieth century, communist rule in Europe labeled sociology as a bourgeois discipline and banned it in order to institute the study of Marxist ideology. For example, during the 1920s and 1930s at many universities and institutes in Russia, Belarus, and the Ukraine, sociology courses were replaced by courses on historical materialism and scientific communism (Keen & Mucha 2004).

The history of modern sociology, including the socio-political influences and key theorists that shaped the field's development, is vital background knowledge for all those interested in the discipline of sociology, as well as social theory as a whole. This article explains the history of modern sociology in three parts:

• An overview of developments in modern sociology.

• A description of the ways in which twentieth century social theorists influenced the development of modern sociology.

• A discussion of the influence of classical sociology on modern sociology.

Developments in Modern Sociology

The first half of the twentieth century was marked by war and urbanization. In the global context, World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945) caused millions of casualties, the refiguring of national boundaries and national identities, and the development of international governing bodies to promote diplomatic solutions over warfare. While the world wars stalled the development of classical sociology in European academies, the discipline developed at a rapid pace in North America.

Modern sociology began in North America in the late nineteenth century, and North American sociology was quickly institutionalized and incorporated into academic departments. Sociology became a recognized academic disciple in the late 1890s when American universities began teaching sociology and sociology departments were established. Sociology books, courses, and university departments became common in America during late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Sorokin 1929). The establishment of the American Sociological Society in 1905 marked the beginning of a uniquely North American sociology, which was characterized by individualism and a focus on individual behavior rather than social classes as a whole. This concern for the individual facilitated the collection of statistical data on individuals and subsequent quantitative analysis.

In the 1890s, sociologist Albion Small established the sociology program at the University of Chicago, and, five years later, the university began publishing, the American Journal of Sociology . The University of Chicago's sociology program, known as the Chicago School of Sociology, was popular for its studies of urban-life, minorities, and conflict. With its qualitative focus, the Chicago School was the center of American sociology for much of the early twentieth century. Its urban focus was a continuation of the European sociology tradition that emerged largely as a response to nineteenth century industrialization and urbanization.

Similarly, sociologist Franklin Giddings established the sociology department at Columbia University in the 1890s. The Columbia program, with its quantitative focus, is credited with training the first generation of sociological statisticians and demographers. Statistics became a central sociological methodology during the modern period, and statistics, along with other quantitative methods, bolstered the scientific nature of early American sociology.

By the early twentieth century both reformist sociology, lead by sociologist Lester Ward, and a conservative, classically inspired branch of sociological thought had emerged. Social reformers began using sociological perspectives and applied research methods to promote social change and social justice. They embraced the field of sociology and came to depend on sociological research, such as urban and rural community studies, to illustrate and prove the existence and scope of social problems. This movement, which was coupled very closely with social work and social reform, had as its mission the improvement of social ethics for all individuals and social progress for all societies. At the same time, other sociologists focused on developing new research methodologies.

Modern sociology moved into mainstream American thought and practice in the early twentieth century; the American government even incorporated sociological research methods into its census and criminology operations. For example, in the 1920s the United States Department of Agriculture undertook sociological research in rural communities throughout the US, and the US Census borrowed sociological methods to learn more about the population through interviews, questionnaires, and data analysis. The US government also hired sociologists during the New Deal era to expand knowledge about social needs and behaviors across sections of society. Additionally, sociologists worked for the US government during World War II to strengthen military performance, as well as develop plans to integrate troops back into society after the war was over (Turner 1990).

Further Insights

Early Twentieth Century Intellectuals & Their Influence on Sociology

Social theorists of the early twentieth century studied the effects of urbanization, the impact of capitalism, the centralization of authority, the impact of inequality, changes in production methods, and factors in population growth. Four theorist are recognized as the founders of American sociology: Lester Ward, Albion Small, William Sumner, and Franklin Giddings. These theorists, along with other notable sociologists including Robert Park, Louis Wirth, Edward C. Hayes, Ferdinand Tonnies, Pitirim A. Sorokin, Ernest W. Burgess, and William F. Ogburn, shaped the theories, methodologies, and direction of modern sociology.

Lester F. Ward

Lester Ward (1841-1913) was the first president of the American Sociological Association. Ward's best-known work, Dynamic Sociology (1883), encouraged sociologists to embrace experimentation and the scientific method in their research. Later works included Pure Sociology (1902) and Applied Sociology (1906). Ward's sociology was based on a theory of social change. He opposed Herbert Spencer's theory of social Darwinism and his "survival of the fittest" doctrine. According to Ward, and his three laws of social dynamics, people and races could rise above the cultural position into which they were born. And, in opposition to Spencer, he promoted the idea that a science of society could and should be used to address social ills like poverty and foster individuals' happiness and freedom. He was also a strong proponent for equal rights for women.

For much of his life, Ward worked as a civil servant at institutions such as the Federal Bureau of Statistics, the Bureau of Standards, the Census Bureau, and the Bureau of Immigration. He held positions such as Chief of the Division of Navigation and Immigration in the Treasury Department, and Assistant Geologist, Chief Geologist, and Paleontologist at the United States Geological Survey. He also served as a Union soldier in the Civil War, and held academic posts at Brown University. Throughout his life, Ward called for an increase in the state's role in society, arguing that the state represented society and society's interest and was charged with protecting the needs of all of social classes, not just those of the ruling class (Alexander, 1968).

Albion W. Small

Albion Small (1854-1926) founded the first accredited department of sociology in an American university at the University of Chicago, as well as the American Journal of Sociology . The "Chicago School of Sociology," as the University of Chicago sociology department became known, was the center of North American sociology during the first half of the twentieth century. Through the works of its various faculty, it developed a theoretical basis for the systematic study of society. Small is also notable for using the American Journal of Sociology to, in part, promote the work of progressive feminists such as Jane Addams, Florence Kelley, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman, despite these women's lack of sociological credentials.

Small's best-known works were Origins of Sociology (1924) and General Sociology (1905). He focused his research on the social economy, or the relationship between the new industrial economy and moral, political, and social life, and the role of religion in social reform. Small's contributions to the Chicago School of Sociology and the American Journal of Sociology strengthened and defined the field of sociology and affirmed its status as a respected social science (Eisenach, 2007).

William G. Sumner

William G. Sumner (1840-1910) was an ordained an Episcopal minister and professor of political and social science at Yale. He is best known as one of Herbert Spencer's disciples, and worked to bring Spencer's social Darwinism to a North American audience. Much of his work sought to order and chart the evolution of human customs, folkways, and mores, which he believed developed naturally through the course of social evolution. As a social Darwinist, Sumner felt that social reform was a useless pursuit. In his opinion, social reform could not change the pace of social evolution for groups or races. His most well-known work Folkways (1907) discussed his views on the natural laws of social development ("William Graham Sumner," n.d.).

Franklin H. Giddings

Franklin Giddings (1855-1931), an influential quantitative sociologist, is considered to be one of the four founders of American sociology. He began teaching at Columbia University in 1894 and, while he carried out very little original research, his support for quantitative research methods legitimized and popularized quantitative sociology (McFraland 2004). He also developed his theory of "consciousness of kind," which sought to explain how societies come together and experience internal conflict.

Robert E. Park

Robert Park (1864-1944) brought journalistic experience and perspective to his sociological practice. According to Park, sociologists were "super-reporters" who gathered layers of social information and data. He studied with Georg Simmel in Europe before joining the University of Chicago's sociology department in 1914. Park studied collective behavior and interaction in Chicago's most urban neighborhoods, and much of his research centered on the lives of African-Americans. Park developed a theory of human ecology (a theory of social interaction and dynamic mobility) that was based on the scientific principles of symbiosis, invasion, succession, dominance, and growth. His work contributed to the prominence and reputation of the Chicago School of Sociology (Beauregard 1997).

Louis Wirth

Louis Wirth (1857-1952) was one of the key urban sociologists at the Chicago School. He served as president of the American Sociological Society and the International Sociological Association, and his work on the theory of social order, urban life, and minority groups influenced the direction of modern sociology. Wirth's most influential work, The Ghetto (1930), described and analyzed the lives of individuals and groups in the urban Jewish population, and is considered a classic in both community history and Jewish life studies. The urban planning movement and the applied field of housing have both used Wirth's sociological studies of urban life to direct resource allocation and identify needs in urban environments (Vance 1952).

Edward C. Hayes

Edward C. Hayes (1868-1928) was a founder of the American Sociological Association. Hayes, who wrote Introduction to the Study of Sociology (1915) and Sociology and Ethics (1921), was an influential force in the American college and university system's adoption of sociology courses and departments ("Edward C. Hayes" 2006).

Ferdinand Tonnies

Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936), a German sociologist, was inspired by the work of Hobbes, Spencer, Marx, and Comte. As a major force behind classical German sociology, he influenced the direction of modern sociology worldwide. He was one of the founders of the German Society for Sociology, and held the society's presidency from 1909 to 1933.

Tonnies most well-known book, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft (1887), explained his theory of social groups. According to Tonnies, there are two types of social groups: gemeinschaft and gesellschaft. Gemeinschaft, which can be represented as a family, is a community with shared values and beliefs. Gesellschaft, which can be represented as a business, is a group in which people associate with one another to meet their individual, rather than communal, interests. It is characterized by self-interest and diverse values and mores. Tonnies associated gemeinschaft with communism and gesellschaft with socialism. Though he drew sharp distinctions between the two, Tonnies believed that all cultures contained elements of both gemeinschaft and gesellschaft (Thurnwald & Eubank 1936).

Pitirim A. Sorokin

Pitirim A. Sorokin (1889-1968) was a Russian sociologist who served as a professor of sociology at Harvard University in the 1930s. Sorokin used quantitative methods to study the variables of social change, and sought to integrate Western and Eastern approaches to knowing in an effort to better understand reality and the human condition. In 1944, he was asked to leave his post at Harvard in due to departmental change and turmoil, but in 1963 he was elected served as the president of the American Sociological Association. In this role, he tried to unite sociologists as the field fractured and diversified as a result of new social problems, agendas, and challenges (McMahon 1996).

Ernest W. Burgess

Ernest Burgess (1886-1966) served as the president of numerous professional sociology organizations including the American Sociological Society, the Sociological Research Association, and the Social Science Research Council. Burgess dedicated his career to developing a reliable tool for the prediction of social phenomena such as delinquency, parole violation, divorce, and population growth. He also worked to popularize the field of family relationship studies. His work on American marriages described how, during the twentieth century, the culture's attitudes about marriage shifted to highlight its emotional, or companionate aspects and downplay its role as a unit of social organization (Cherlin 2004).

William F. Ogburn

William F. Ogburn (1886-1959) served as the president of the American Sociological Society and of the Social Science Research Council. In addition, Ogburn was chairman of the United States Census Advisory Committee, director of the Consumers Advisory Board of the National Recovery Administration, and adviser to the Resettlement Administration. Ogburn's work focused on research methods, technology's impact on society, the family, and population studies. He promoted the idea that research should only be undertaken on subjects which would allow the collection of statistical data for objective measurement and analysis. Ogburn's best-known work, Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature (1922), discussed the effects of technology, invention, and material culture on social and cultural change (Volti 2004).

Ultimately, the early twentieth century sociologists, a diverse group of thinkers and researchers responding to social changes brought on by urbanization and two world wars, promoted individualistic sociological agendas such as social reform and quantitative research methods. With backgrounds in wide-ranging fields such as journalism, religion, and social justice, the four founders of American sociology along with other influential theorists brought creativity and new vision to the problem and project of understanding society and social interaction. They were responsible for defining the discipline of sociology as a modern science that was distinct from anthropology, psychology, and history, and capable of both engaging in scientific analysis and bringing about both social reform.

Further Discourse

The Classical Roots of Modern Sociology

While early twentieth century sociology developed new paradigms, theories, and methods in response to the socio-political events of the day (i.e. urbanization, industrialization, social reform, World War I, and World War II), it also remained deeply rooted in the ideas of nineteenth century classical sociology. Marx's conflict perspective, Durkheim's functionalism, Spencer's social Darwinism, and Simmel's microsoiology all weighed heavily on the theoretical and methodological developments of the period (Turner, 1990).

Classical sociology influenced modern sociology in two important ways. First, the nineteenth century's concern for universal laws persisted into the twentieth century. For example, Auguste Comte (1798-1857), considered to be the father of sociology, influenced modern sociologists' efforts to generate universal laws. He developed the theory of positivism to create a procedure for understanding the social world through a scientific approach and scientific reason. Comte believed that a socio-political system founded on positivism had the potential to restore social consensus and order, and he proposed that social progress was dependent upon the formulation of universal social laws (Ferrarotti, 1990; Black, 2000). This search for the universal laws and principles of society influenced the direction of the Chicago School of Sociology as it sought to develop a holistic, theoretical basis for the systematic study of society.

Second, classical sociology's scientific and empirical leanings underpinned much of modern sociology. Evolutionary thought, as expressed by Herbert Spencer, continued to influence sociology during the first half of twentieth century (Turner, 1990). His conception of society as an organism was echoed in both Sumner's and Park's works. However, it must be noted that some modern sociologists, such as Lester Ward, who were committed to social reform opposed Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism as elitist and racist (Alexander 1968).

Conclusion

In the final analysis, early twentieth century sociology's development was influenced by numerous factors including World War I and World War II; the urbanization of US cities; the American ethic of individualism; the social reform movement; the US government's adoption of sociological methods, theories and practices; and the European classical tradition. The spread of sociological theory from Europe to America at the end of the nineteenth century, along with political upheaval in Europe that suppressed the continued development of European sociology for decades, positioned American universities to become the center for sociological thought and practice for the first half of the twentieth century. During this time, the US was undergoing extreme social and political change due to urbanization, immigration, industrialization, and regionalism. Modern sociology's studies of urban and rural communities, as well as its studies of minorities, influenced the growth and integration of American cities and institutions, and laid the foundation for late twentieth century sociology.

Terms & Concepts

Chicago School of Sociology: The informal network of urban sociologists and urban theory that emerged from the University of Chicago's Department of Sociology during the first half of the twentieth century.

Giddings, Franklin: An influential quantitative sociologist considered to be one of the four founders of American sociology.

Industrialization: The technical, cultural, and social changes that occurred in the Western world during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

Small, Albion: Founder of the University of Chicago's sociology program.

Social Economy: The relationship of the new industrial economy to moral, social, and political life.

Social Reform: An early twentieth century movement dedicated to achieving social justice for all people, and improving the living and working conditions of oppressed groups.

Society: A group of individuals united by values, norms, culture, or organizational affiliation.

Spencer, Herbert: An English sociologist and philosopher who developed the theory of social Darwinism and related phrase "survival of the fittest" to describe how only the fittest members of a society survive and succeed.

Sumner, William: An American social Darwinist who worked to order and chart the evolution of human customs, folkways, and mores.

Urbanization: The change in demography and landscape that occurs as populations cluster in city centers.

Ward, Lester: The first president of the American Sociological Association.

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Suggested Reading

Baldwin, D. (2004). Black belts and ivory towers: The place of race in U.S. social thought, 1892-1948. Critical Sociology, 30 , 397-450. Retrieved April 8, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13155445&site=ehost-live

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Lybeck, E. (2013). Lester Ward and Patrick Geddes in early American and British sociology. History Of The Human Sciences, 26, 51–69. Retrieved October 29, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=87039406

Nock, D. (2004). The myth about "myths of the Chicago School": Evidence from Floyd Nelson House. American Sociologist, 35 , 63-79. Retrieved April 8, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=15055408&site=ehost-live.

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