Public Sociology

This article examines the concept of public sociology within the historical context of the development of sociology as a discipline. Michael Burawoy's ideas of public sociology of are reviewed along with many of the comments made by other sociologists about his ideas. The short-lived radical sociology movement is explained along with the long history and some of the accomplishments of applied sociology. Some of the challenges that sociologists face in making their research more widely known are discussed. The emergence of pop science and pop psychology are reviewed with examples of celebrity scientists.

Keywords: Applied Sociology; Burawoy, Michael; Classical Sociology; Pop Science; Project Camelot; Public Sociology; Radical Sociology; Research Ethics; Self-help Movement

Overview

Sociology as an academic discipline and professional pursuit has had a long and interesting history. Evolving from a relatively conservative study of society, sociology has gone through many changes including a radical stage in the 1960s and is presently undergoing continuous self examination. The latest movement is toward a multi-faceted discipline and a push toward public sociology, led in an evangelistic manner by Michael Burawoy. Burawoy took the position that sociology should move from a strictly formal academic orientation to a purpose-focused public sociology. As a discipline, sociology should provide professional policy-oriented theory development and research that is moderated through critical sociological analysis and that would eventually help build a better society.

Sociology simultaneously emerged in universities in continental Europe, England and the United States. The early emphasis of sociology varied from country to country and was largely influenced by the pioneers of sociology in their different nations. Early notables included Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, and William Graham Sumner who were all going in their own direction of inquiry and formulation of theories of society (Hamilton, 2003). Sociology became more firmly established as academic discipline in the late 1800s (Acker, 2005). What emerged during those earlier years of sociology is what is now often referred to as classical sociology. The goal of the classical theorist was to develop and support theories that could explain the workings of society or some aspect of society (Gibbons, 2007). This was done through both the development of theory and testing of theories through empirical research.

American sociology has had a long and impressive list of contributors, who in their own time had significant impact. These include Alexis de Tocqueville, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton, Robert Morrison MacIver, W. E. B. Dubois, Robin M. Williams Jr., W.I. Thomas, Pitirim Sorokin, C. Wright Mills, and dozens of others. Sociology departments at Columbia University and the University of Chicago were well established by the early 1900s. The social environment in which these departments were growing was far different than the universities in Europe. New York and Chicago provided a human laboratory of social change, industrial expansion, and economic growth the likes of which had never been seen on such a vast scale. These cities provided almost all the things that sociologists love to study, with a myriad of social problems which needed to be addressed. These environments help to shape the future of American sociology (Halas, 2001).

With the emerging twentieth century as historical context, and the rapid changes in American society, many sociologists in the United States conducted research that helped to achieve positive public outcomes and provided a better understanding of social problems (Noy, 2008). This pragmatic focus continued and a considerable amount of the research and analysis performed by sociologists has been relevant to near-term and long-term societal issues (Brint, 2005; Light, 2005).

Radical Sociology

At various times in the history of sociology, observers and sociologists alike have been concerned over a lack of status for the discipline as well as fragmentation in the development of theory (Szymanski, 1970; Denzin, 1997). The lack of a central personality for sociology and the social movements of the time led several sociologists to social activism in the 1960s and 1970s. They transformed their realm of work into radical sociology, which focused on social change and social justice issues. Radical sociology was more a perspective than an actual subcategory of Sociology. Much of this work was focused on feminism, ecology, or race issues (Wallerstein, 2006).

Radical sociology ended up confronting the then-accepted norms and viewpoints about power and equality in the United States. Much of the work of C. Wright Mills was rooted in very strong sociological observation and analysis was well as his ideology toward injustice. His famous work The Sociological Imagination, was a compelling manifesto to mobilize sociologists to work for justice and the public good. His books White Collar and The Power Elite provided a model by which to analyze social structure and social institutions (McKee, 1970).

One of the most aggressive efforts to establish a department of sociology rooted in radical sociology at a major university occurred at Washington University in Saint Louis, Missouri during the late 1960s. The short-lived effort was riddled with conflict. Most of the professors in the department were eventually fired or left on their own accord after confrontations with university administrators. There was also a heated controversy over the thesis work of Laud Humphreys, who eventually published a book Tearoom Trade: Impersonal Sexual Encounters in Public Places based on his research in Saint Louis (Etzkowitz, 1989).

Sociologist Michael Burawoy contended that the radical sociology of the 1970s failed (Katz-Fishman & Scott, 2005) while others disagree, pointing out some of the excellent work that was done by sociologists during this time (Chase-Dunn, 2005).

Public Sociology

Michael Burawoy's 2005 presidential address to the American Sociological Association advanced his argument as to the role of sociologists in society and the concept of public sociology. One of the main points Burawoy made was the importance of moving sociology outside of itself as a professional discipline and into a position that could more directly benefit societies and interaction within them (Tittle, 2004; Kalleberg, 2005; Holmwood, 2007).

Michael Burawoy (2005) took the position that sociology should move from a strictly formal academic orientation to a purpose-focused public sociology. As a discipline, sociology should provide professional policy-oriented theory development and research that is moderated through critical sociological analysis and that would eventually help build a better society (Turner, 2005). Some argue that Burawoy's position was too narrowly focused and asked for further research as to how professional, critical, policy, and public sociologies could be harnessed for the greater good of both the discipline and of society (McLaughlin, et al., 2005). Followers argued that Burawoy's position was an effort to re-engage sociology as an academic discipline that addressed public concerns rather than just the development of social theory (Boyns & Fletcher, 2005; Etzioni, 2005; Ghamari-Tabrizi, 2005).

The debate over Burawoy's vision of public sociology continues to be fueled from many different perspectives (Ericson, 2005). Beyond the nuts and bolts arguments about methods and structure is the macro issue of what direction sociology as a discipline will take and whether it will be able to stand alone or become the servant of power as has economics and political science (Aronowitz, 2005). The view that the future of sociology is highly dependent on how much sociology can contribute to society and how those contributions are viewed by various publics was shared by many activist sociologists (Tittle, 2004; Calhoun, 2005).

Applications

Sociology for the Public

Efforts to move sociology away from theory development and into a problem-solving mode are not new at all (Whyte, 1998; Mandel & Howson, 2009). In many ways sociology has long been public and the new movement to make it more public may not necessarily change much in terms of how sociologists do things (Zurcher, 1970; Brady, 2004).

Unfortunately, many students become frustrated after time because sociology in its purest form tends to be removed from current events or conditions. Some remove themselves from academia and use their knowledge of sociology in becoming activists, researchers, or writers (Gaines, 1998). They use their knowledge and skills as consultants, experts, and as agents for change working as public social scientists (Hadas, 2007). Historically, applied sociology is an approach to sociology wherein the practitioner works from an advocacy position, provides problems solving support, or assists in public policy development (Neeley, 2008). Sociologists have long studied social problems (Leedham & Eitzen, 1994) and this helped to attract many students to sociology as a discipline because of the potential opportunity to better understand the social aspects of the world as well as to attempt to improve the quality of societal life (Luschen, 1992; Gaines, 1998; Bonacich, 2005). Applied sociology is not just geared toward solving social problems. It can also include consulting to organizations or conducting research for private companies where sociological concepts and research methods can help address strategic or tactical issues (Wimberley, 1998).

As an academic discipline sociology has reshaped itself to adapt to the changing world by increasing the number and expanding the scope of specializations that sociologists can pursue (Starr, 1983). This in turn expands the "publics" that sociologists can serve. Some publics have had concerns for or have been stakeholders in environmental issues and urban problems. Newer fields opening up to sociological research include architectural studies, taxation and public fiscal management, and forensics research.

Project Camelot & Social Research Ethics

Debates about public sociology will continue and among the issues that are yet to be resolved is how broadly or how narrowly a public will be defined and what rules or principles will govern engagements with the publics. But debates about the type of research that sociologists should be involved in and the ethics that govern researcher responsibility are nothing new to sociology. One of the dramatic episodes in the ongoing debates occurred during the 1960s and is now known as Project Camelot.

The focus of Project Camelot was Latin America. The project was sponsored by the United States Army and managed through American University. The ultimate goal of the project was to establish a model that could help predict social change in developing countries; especially changes that may be produced as a result of insurgency (Oppenheim, 1969). Some viewed this project as an espionage mission.

As word about the project spread there was considerable negative reaction from academic sociologists and other social scientists. Several observers as well as participants denounced the project and the scandal was afoot (Adams, 1968). As a result the debate about ethics in social science research accelerated. Central to this ethical debate is the issue of covert research, where the subjects of the research have no knowledge of the research, the purpose of the research, and especially knowledge as to how the results of the research may be used (Burgess, 1983).

As the debate continued, the American Sociological Association released a code of ethics in 1968 (Bailey, 1988). Since then research funders, administrators, directors, and university departments and boards of ethics have been setting stricter ethical standards and in many cases require reviews of research for ethical considerations before projects are initiated (Alderson & Morrow, 2006).

Underutilization of Sociological Research

The work of sociologists continues to lag behind in both recognition and utilization at the policy level compared to the work of economists and political scientists (Woolcock & Kim, 2000). The ethics issues that surfaced after Project Camelot and the professional response to the issues may have contributed to this lack of utilization. Sociologists clearly want a high ethical standard applied to research and not all government projects (especially those funded by the military or spy agencies) are ready for such scrutiny.

Many applied sociologists that focused on social research for the purpose of directed social change have been defamed as idiosyncratic social engineers that were guided by their own biases or misdirected by the biases of their employers (Klein, 1982). This could also be part of the reason that sociology and sociologists are not held in high esteem by policy makers or the public at large (Seperson, 1995).

The type of research that sociologists can actually accomplish is a limiting factor in the marketability of sociology as a discipline. In the late 1900s and early 2000s there have been very few large well funded studies that have amassed volumes of data to analyze. On the other hand, there have been numerous smaller studies that individual or small groups of researchers have completed with little or no outside funding (Lidz & Ricci, 1990). The smaller projects were undertaken as matter of interest to the researchers and perhaps a matter of connivance because an opportunity was readily available.

The lack of consistent funding for sociology has had considerable impact on the discipline and has probably contributed to the growing number of specializations — or what some call fragmentation — of the discipline (Turner, 2006). The tendency toward specialization also indicates that sociologists have had to be more individually resourceful or entrepreneurial in order to support their research efforts. The scarcity of funding has also probably contributed to the use of mixed methods of data collection and analysis which is rather common in applied social research (Bryman, et al., 2008).

Issue

Sociology in the Media

There may be desire on the part of some sociologists to do public work be it through applied sociological research or perhaps more in the Burawoyvian sense of engaging and communicating back and forth with a public. However, in general, sociology holds little interest for the reading public (Ritzer, 1998). Sociologists and social scientists (for the most part) have never really gained extensive public exposure or media coverage. Very few sociologists find stardom through media attention of their work or research and often those that do get attention (as some did during the Clinton sex scandal) are accused of not doing serious scholarly work or of seeking publicity (Ewer, 1979; Schwartz, 1998). Concerns about media coverage of sociological research have validity in that many media outlets are seeking content that is geared toward, or can be interpreted in a manner that appeals to their particular audience. This can result in selective or less than accurate presentation of research results (Walum, 1975; Siebel & Smith, 2009).

Celebrity Practitioners & Pop Science

There have been several scientists and intellectuals that have drawn considerable public interest to their work and to their fields of study. Carl Sagan, a physics professor, brought astronomy and the cosmos to the general public through books and television shows. He created excitement and expanded interest in his work among a wide public including professionals from many fields as well as tens of thousands of people outside the professional disciplines (Dyson, 2007).

Alvin and Heidi Toffler, who brought the world the concepts of Future Shock, hyper-change, and the future of war, certainly addressed many social issues and explored, in their own manner, many sociological concepts. But they considered themselves futurist and their work, although popular with the general public, met with criticism from some sociologists even while it received moderate praise from other sociologists (Kover & Huber, 1972).

Bill Masters and Virginia Johnson brought the discussion of sexuality into the mainstream of America (Romano, 2009). The Masters and Johnson studies were, at their time, rivaled by Alfred Kinsey's work which delved into the sex lives of thousands of study participants and debunked one myth after another within the realm of sexuality (Bullough, 1998).

Desmond Morris, a zoologist and anthropologist authored several popular books including The Naked Ape, The Human Zoo, and Amazing Baby. He also helped to produce numerous television science programs examining human behavior. Both the books and the broadcast programs were popular and expanded the general public's appreciation of anthropology, zoology, and human evolution (Root-Bernstein, 2005).

There have also been numerous practitioners that have exploited their credentials and the public interest in their fields. Many have presented material that has been viewed as far less professional than the Tofflers, Masters and Johnsons, and Desmond Morris. The pop psychology craze and the self-help movement, which boomed since the 1960s, drove a marketplace for pop material, much of which been viewed in a less than favorable light by many academicians. The pop psychology movement brought all types advice to the bookstore and the public. There was also a rash of radio talk shows which addressed people's problems on the air. Good or bad, the self-help movement has certainly brought psychology out of academia and into the everyday lives of the public and without doubt has been a global success for book publishers.

The Relationship between the Public & the Sciences

The relationship between the sciences and the public has always been somewhat strained. One of the biggest issues in this complex relationship is control over research activities and the use of the results of scientific research (Boden et al., 2006). Pop science wins the public's attention because it is softened and molded into terms and concepts that are appealing and perhaps less threatening to the public because a packaged version is simple to understand. On the other hand, many scientific discoveries can be frightening or create backlash based on conflicts with religion or morals. Thus the public, and policy makers on behalf of the public, make extreme efforts to control science (Boden et al., 2006). This has certainly been the case concerning stem cell research (Southwick, 2001).

One of the many yet to be answered questions about Michael Burawoy's concept of public sociology is when sociology engages the public, does sociology become subordinate to the public's perception of the world? Sociologists have always been somewhat insubordinate, and modern sociologists want to do independent research. This desire for independence may be well justified. If the work of W. E. B. Dubois and later Robin M. Williams Jr. on race in the United States had been suppressed by then-popular beliefs, Americans may well have continued to deny the importance of race in society. If, after World War II, there were not a few sociologists that stood strong on the race issue the crimes of racism, they may have taken far longer to extinguish (Kasinitz, 2008).

Conclusion

Sociology as an academic discipline has gone though many transitions over the last one hundred years. Many questions remain about the future of sociology and whether or not the practice of public sociology will change how sociology is viewed outside the discipline as well as the type of work that sociologists will do in the future (Eitzen, 1991).

The goal of sociology has been rather consistent since the 1800s; that is to study society and the dynamics and causes of social change. Michael Burawoy's public sociology may not have solved the problems of sociology as a discipline, but one thing for sure is that he has stimulated dialogue and awakened the imaginations of many sociologists.

Terms & Concepts

Applied Sociology: The use of sociological theory and social research to help solve social problems, develop public policy, and address macro social issues (Neeley, 2008).

Classical Sociology: The work of sociologists in the early 1900s to develop sociological theories and test and support those theories through empirical research.

Pop Science: Material that is based on principles and research of the academic disciplines but is used to support the writings and work published in self-help programs or popular books.

Public Sociology: The theory and ideas of sociologist Michael Burawoy to move sociology from a purely academic field to a science that is more widely accepted and utilized by larger number of groups and people outside of the field of sociology.

Radical Sociology: The philosophy of some sociologists that sociology should be active in pursuing significant social change and addressing social issues.

Self-help Movement: A trend emerging in the 1960s encouraging individuals to solve their own problems with the support of material from pop psychology or other pop science.

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Light, D. (2005). Contributing to scholarship and theory through public sociology. Social Forces, 83, 1647-1653. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=17930043&site=ehost-live

Luschen, G. (1992). On logic, methodology and practice of applied sociology. Knowledge & Policy, 5, 51. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9702062457&site=ehost-live

Mandel, I., & Howson, A. (2009). Sociological practice: Applied & clinical. Sociological Practice: Applied & Clinical — Research Starters Sociology, 1-6. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Research Starters — Sociology. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rst&AN=37219660&site=ehost-live

McKee, J. (1970). The radical challenge to sociology. Sociological Focus, 4, 6-14. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text database. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=14643684&site=ehost-live

McLaughlin, N., Kowalchuk, L., & Turcotte, K. (2005). Why sociology does not need to be saved: Analytic reflections on public sociologies. American Sociologist, 36(3/4), 133-151. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text database. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=21460391&site=ehost-live

Neeley, E. (2008). Doing sociology: Applied sociology for justice system policy reform. Sociological Origins, 5, 39-44. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=44185400&site=ehost-live

Noy, D. (2008). Power mapping: Enhancing sociological knowledge by developing generalizable analytical public tools. American Sociologist, 39, 3-18. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31141792&site=ehost-live

Oppenheim, A. (1969). Knowledge for what? the Camelot legacy. British Journal of Sociology, 20, 326. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10408272&site=ehost-live

Ritzer, G. (1998). Writing to be read: Changing the culture and reward structure of American sociology. Contemporary Sociology, 27, 446-453. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=1152990&site=ehost-live

Romano, A. (2009). Sexual Masters of the universe. Newsweek, 153, 50-51. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=37830753&site=ehost-live

Root-Bernstein, R. (2005). Desmond Morris's two spheres. Leonardo, 38, 318-322. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=17949055&site=ehost-live

Schwartz, P. (1998). Stage fright or death wish: Sociology in the mass media. Contemporary Sociology, 27, 439-445. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=1152989&site=ehost-live

Seperson, S. (1995). What's wrong with sociology? Its public image. Sociological Forum, 10 , 309-312. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=11056102&site=ehost-live

Siebel, C., & Smith, K. (2009). How public are we? Coverage of sociology by the Associated Press. American Sociologist, 40, 289-308. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=46709144&site=ehost-live

Starr, J. (1983). Specialization and the development of sociology: Differentiation or fragmentation? Qualitative Sociology, 6, 66. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10869072&site=ehost-live

Szymanski, A. (1970). Toward a radical sociology. Sociological Inquiry, 40, 3-12. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13721557&site=ehost-live

Tilly, C. (2007). History of and in Sociology. American Sociologist, 38, 326-329. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=28382225&site=ehost-live

Tittle, C. (2004). The arrogance of public sociology. Social Forces, 82, 1639-1643. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13997431&site=ehost-live

Turner, J. (2005). Is public sociology such a good idea? American Sociologist, 36(3/4), 27-45. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=21460394&site=ehost-live

Turner, J. (2006). American sociology in chaos: Differentiation without integration. American Sociologist, 37, 15-29. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=23312029&site=ehost-live

Vidjch, A. (1991). Social theory and the substantive problems of sociology. International Journal of Politics, Culture & Society, 4, 517. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rst&AN=10729319&site=ehost-live

Wallerstein, I. (2006). Who is radical sociology, what is she? Contemporary Sociology, 35, 109-111. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=19968227&site=ehost-live

Walum, L. (1975). Sociology and the mass media: Some major problems and modest proposals. American Sociologist, 10, 28-32. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=4942450&site=ehost-live

Whyte, W. (1998). Rethinking sociology: Applied and basic research. American Sociologist, 29, 16-19. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=860567&site=ehost-live

Wimberley, R. (1998). Applied sociology? Even musicians give concerts. American Sociologist, 29, 5-19. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2659061&site=ehost-live

Woolcock, M., & Kim, J. (2000). Can what is right with sociology fix what is wrong with sociology? A view from the 'come-back' generation. American Sociologist, 31, 15-31. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=3561530&site=ehost-live

Zurcher Jr., L. (1970). Some reflections on sociology and the counter-culture. Sociological Focus, 4, 61-68. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=14643689&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Baiocchi, G. (2005). Interrogating connections: From public criticisms to critical publics in Burawoy's public sociology. Critical Sociology (Brill Academic Publishers), 31, 339-351. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=17109196&site=ehost-live

Bandyopadhyay, P. (1971). One sociology or many: Some issues in radical sociology. Sociological Review, 19, 5-29. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=11200656&site=ehost-live

Bernard, J. (1986). American sociology as moral life. Sociological Forum, 1, 525. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10795247&site=ehost-live

Black, T. (1999). Going public: How sociology might matter again. Sociological Inquiry, 69, 257-275. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2127276&site=ehost-live

Boudon, R. (1988). Will sociology ever be a normal science? Theory & Society, 17, 747. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=rst&AN=10747818&site=ehost-live

Bowman, C. (1956). Is sociology too detached? American Sociological Review, 21, 563-568. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=12789073&site=ehost-live

Brewer, R. (2005). Response to Michael Buroway's commentary: "The Critical Turn to Public Sociology". Critical Sociology (Brill Academic Publishers), 31, 353-359. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=17109195&site=ehost-live

Brook, P., & Darlington, R. (2013). Partisan, scholarly and active: Arguments for an organic public sociology of work. Work, Employment & Society, 27, 232–243. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=87010886

Bulmer, M. (1978). The prospects for applied sociology. British Journal of Sociology, 29, 128-135. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=5298689&site=ehost-live

Burawoy, M. (2004). Public sociology: South African dilemmas in a global context. Society in Transition, 35, 11-26. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13901287&site=ehost-live

Burawoy, M. (2005). Response: Public sociology: Populist fad or path to renewal? British Journal of Sociology, 56, 417-432. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18165362&site=ehost-live

Burawoy, M. (2005). The critical turn to public sociology. Critical Sociology (Brill Academic Publishers), 31, 313-326. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=17109199&site=ehost-live

Burawoy, M. (2005). Third-wave sociology and the end of pure science. American Sociologist, 36(3/4), 152-165. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=21460398&site=ehost-live

Cohen, A. C. (2011). Investigating the apathy toward applied sociology. Journal Of Applied Social Sciences (19367244), 5, 53–65. Retrieved October 31, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=65540012

Colfax, J. (1970). Knowledge for whom? Relevance and responsibility in sociological research. Sociological Inquiry, 40, 73-83. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13721567&site=ehost-live

Deutsch, S. (1970). The radical perspective in sociology. Sociological Inquiry, 40, 85-93. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13721568&site=ehost-live

Etzkowitz, H. (1988). The contradictions of radical sociology. Critical Sociology (Brill Academic Publishers), 15, 95. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=9730657&site=ehost-live

Flacks, R., & Turkel, G. (1978). Radical sociology: The emergence of Neo-Marxian perspectives in US Sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, 4, 193. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=10457510&site=ehost-live

Freidson, E. (1986). Knowledge and the practice of sociology. Sociological Forum, 1, 684. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10795299&site=ehost-live

Hobbs, T. (1993). In defense of sociology: A note. Sociological Inquiry, 63, 471-477. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9406223028&site=ehost-live

Hofstee, E. (1970). The relations between sociology and policy. Sociologia Ruralis, 10, 331. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10196439&site=ehost-live

Hood, T. (1995). The practical consequences of sociology's pursuit of "Justice for All". Social Forces, 74, 1-14. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9511075288&site=ehost-live

Horowitz, I. (2006). Truth, error, and the history of sociology. American Sociologist, 37 , 113-115. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=23312038&site=ehost-live

Keith, B. (2000). Taking stock of the discipline: Some reflections on the state of American sociology. American Sociologist, 31, 5-14. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=3561529&site=ehost-live

Kivisto, P. (1987). Sociology as a vocation: a Weberian analysis of the origins and subsequent development of American sociology. British Journal of Sociology, 38, 112-120. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=6781673&site=ehost-live

Locke, S. (2001). Sociology and the public understanding of science: From rationalization to rhetoric. British Journal of Sociology, 52, 1-18. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=4196984&site=ehost-live

Moody, J., & Light, R. (2006). A view from above: The evolving sociological landscape. American Sociologist, 37, 67-86. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=23312033&site=ehost-live

Nielsen, F. (2004). The vacant "we": Remarks on public sociology. Social Forces, 82, 1619-1627. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13996981&site=ehost-live

Ploch, D. (1978). Research funding for sociology in the National Science Foundation. Sociological Inquiry, 48(3/4), 54-62. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13759320&site=ehost-live

Roach, J. (1970). The radical sociology movement: A short history and commentary. American Sociologist, 5, 224. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=10646479&site=ehost-live

Scott, J. (2005). Who will speak, and who will listen? Comments on Burawoy and public sociology. British Journal of Sociology, 56, 405-409. Retrieved December 22, 2009 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18165364&site=ehost-live

Essay by Michael Erbschloe, M.A.

Michael Erbschloe is an information technology consultant, educator, and author. He has taught graduate level courses and developed technology-related curriculum for several universities and speaks at conferences and industry events around the world. Michael holds a Masters Degree in Sociology from Kent State University. He has authored hundreds of articles and several books on technology.