Responses to discrimination
Responses to discrimination encompass a range of reactions individuals may have when facing biased treatment based on their identity. Such responses can vary from internalized emotions, like self-hatred, which occurs when individuals internalize negative societal views and may develop feelings of inferiority towards themselves or their group. Some may resort to ghettoization, whether voluntary or forced, limiting their interactions and opportunities within a broader society. Another response is stigma redemption, where individuals accept the discrimination but find solace in the belief of future rewards or justice in an afterlife.
Other strategies include passing, where individuals conceal their identity to gain acceptance, and covering, which involves temporarily downplaying aspects of one's identity in certain situations. Additionally, some may seek to correct behaviors perceived as contributing to discrimination, a viewpoint that can be contentious and raise the issue of victim-blaming. Historically, movements have also emerged that advocate for confrontational approaches to dismantle discrimination, highlighting a spectrum of responses ranging from self-acceptance to direct action for social justice. Understanding these varied reactions helps illuminate the complexities of the human experience in the face of discrimination.
Responses to discrimination
SIGNIFICANCE: Racial or ethnic groups or individuals who are discriminated against can respond to discrimination in a variety of ways. The specific response selected, and how the dominant society responds to the behavior, have important consequences for intergroup relations.
Responses to discrimination can range from self-hatred to direct confrontation of those who discriminate. The specific response used, and the likelihood of success for that response, vary according to time and place.
Self-hatred, Ghettoization, and Stigma Redemption
From the perspective of a racial or minority group, the most negative response to experiencing discrimination is self-hatred. A person who experiences discrimination internalizes their group's negative evaluations and hates themselves for having those characteristics. In some cases, this can lead to allying with the discriminator against other members of the individual’s group. Also, a person might simply adopt a defeatist attitude and withdraw from society. In some cases, an individual might commit suicide because of feelings of inferiority internalized from the experienced discrimination. However, self-hatred does not necessarily mean that a person hates themselves; the hatred can be directed against the group to which the person belongs and which is the object of discrimination.
Another response to discrimination, one that usually has negative consequences for the person discriminated against, is ghettoization. The person limits themself to living in a limited part of the larger society, associating mostly with other members of the discriminated-against group. In many cases, as has been true for Black Americans, ghettoization is forced on the person by discriminating restrictions based on race, religion, or another aspect of ethnicity. In some cases, as with many Jews historically, individuals choose to live in a ghetto to avoid daily or frequent incidents of discrimination and maintain ethnic identity. However, whether forced or voluntary, a ghetto usually has negative consequences in that it limits a person’s life opportunities in such areas as education and jobs. Ghettos usually lack facilities available elsewhere. Some activists have argued for ghettoization on a larger scale by supporting, for example, an all-Black state or nation.
With stigma redemption, another way of responding, the victim of discrimination accepts the discrimination but comforts themselves with the belief that in the next world (heaven or hell, the afterlife, a reincarnation, and so on), the victim will be rewarded for being a good person and the discriminator will be punished for being a bad person. Historically, the version of Christianity taught to enslaved individuals in the United States encouraged this perspective, and many African Americans followed this perspective into the twentieth century. This response has led to some Black individuals accusing other Black individuals of being “Uncle Toms” for not opposing discriminatory treatment.
Passing, Covering, and Correction
The person who uses passing as a response to discrimination is able, because of a lack of characteristics identifying the person as a member of the discriminated-against group, to be accepted by members of the discriminating group as a member of their group. The classic example in the United States is the person who is legally or socially classified as Black but who, because of light color, can move to another area where the individual is unknown and be accepted as White. Passing can be permanent, ended by exposure, or ended temporarily (for example, during a visit to relatives). In the United States, at least until the civil rights movement in the 1950s and 1960s, several thousand people are estimated to have passed each year. Members of other ethnic groups, for example, Jewish and Italian Americans, frequently can pass by changing such characteristics as their names, religions, or mannerisms.
Covering can be defined as temporary passing and is much more common than passing. The member of the discriminated-against group can successfully hide, in selected areas of life, such as the workplace, the characteristics that lead to experiencing discrimination. Covering is likely to be used by lifestyle groups that suffer discrimination, such as members of the LGBTQIA+ community, but also can be used by some ethnic groups.
Another way of responding to discrimination is trying to correct the behavior that leads to discrimination. This is more likely to be used for lifestyle groups regarding sexual or drug use behaviors, but some members of racial and ethnic minorities advocate changing behaviors for which their group is stereotyped negatively. For example, a number of Black leaders, usually referred to as conservative Black individuals, argue that some of the negative stereotypes that lead to discrimination are based on behaviors that should be changed, such as teenage pregnancies, drug usage, and dependence on government assistance. Others argue that this is blaming the victim.
Stigma Conversion and Confrontation
In the 1960s during the civil rights movement, a major effort was initiated to replace negative evaluations (stigmas) of Blackness with positive evaluations. The slogan "Black Is Beautiful" and similar phrases such as "I’m Black and I’m Proud" emphasized pride in being Black and converted Blackness into a positive term. Similar slogans of self-acceptance and power became popular among other groups, including "Sisterhood Is Powerful" for women and "Gray Panthers" for older adults, and "Lavender [mixture of blue for males and pink for females] Power for gays."
Throughout history, racial or ethnic groups have resorted to direct confrontation to stop discriminatory treatment, frequently resulting in war. In the United States, the Black Civil Rights movement was the major racial or ethnic confrontational movement in the twentieth century. Opinions differ on whether confrontations should be violent or nonviolent. Native Americans, Mexican Americans, and others also have confronted discriminatory behavior through mass protests.
To enact change and limit discrimination, individuals who witness discrimination, regardless of the race, ethnicity, gender, or sexual identity of the perpetrator or the victim, can respond by acting in solidarity against the discrimination. Celebrating cultural differences openly and respecting the diversity of one's surroundings is critical in limiting discriminatory acts. Racist assertions disguised as jokes, discriminatory legislation, and hate speech should be called out in society.
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