Social Movement Theory: Value-Added Theory

This article focuses on value-added theory. It provides an analysis of the history, applications, and strengths and weaknesses of the theory. An overview of the origins and main principles of value-added theory is included as well as a discussion of value-added theory as applied to social movement formation. The main criticisms of value-added theory are also explored.

Keywords Collective Behavior; Collective Identity; Mass Society Theory; Relative Deprivation Theory; Resource Mobilization Theory; Social Movements; Social Movement Theory; Society; Sociology; Strain; Structural-Strain Theory; Value-Added Theory

Social Movement Theory: Value-Added Theory

Overview

The following is an analysis of value-added theory. Value-added theory of collective behavior argues that certain social conditions are necessary for the development of social movements. Sociologists use value-added theory to analyze the origins of social movements during periods of great social change. Understanding the history, applications, and strengths and weaknesses of value-added theory is vital background for all those interested in the sociology of collective identity and social movements. This article explains value-added theory in three parts:

• An overview of the main principles and history of value-added theory.

• A description of how value-added theory is applied to analyze and understand social movements.

• A discussion of the main criticisms of value-added theory.

The Main Principles of Value-Added Theory

The value-added theory of collective behavior determines whether or not collective behavior will occur. The theory argues that a specific combination of determinants facilitates and promotes collective outcomes and behaviors. The determinants of collective behavior form a value-added process. Value-added processes, which originated in the field of economic theory, refer to processes in which additional value is created at a particular stage of development or production. According to Knottnerus (1983), the value-added theory asserts that determinants to collective behavior combine according to a predictable pattern. Collective behavior requires the appearance of the determinants in a logical and predictable order; specifically, the theory asserts that six social conditions or “determinants are required for the development of a social movement: structural conduciveness, structural strain, generalized beliefs, precipitating factors, mobilization of participants, and social control” (Abstract).

• Structured conduciveness refers to a social situation that permits or encourages some type of collective behavior.

• Structural strain refers to a situation in which some type of deprivation exists.

• Growth and spread of a generalized belief refers to a belief that makes the situation meaningful to actors by identifying the possible source of strain, attributing characteristics to the source, and articulating possible responses to the strain.

• Precipitating factors refers to an act that confirms a generalized belief or exaggerates the condition of strain.

• Mobilization of participants for action refers to bringing the affected group into action.

• Operation of social control refers to the counter-determinants that prevent, deflect, or inhibit the accumulation of the previous determinants (Knottnerus, 1983, p. 390).

In the value-added theory of collective behavior, four components are said to account for social behavior: situational facilities, roles, norms, and values.

• Situational facilities refer to the means and resources used to attain goals in an organization or role.

• Roles refer to the expected behavior of a person in a social situation.

• Norms refer to the rules governing the pursuit of goals.

• Values refer to the goals or ends of social action.

These four components are ordered hierarchically. Value-added theory asserts that values, followed by norms, roles, and facilities, are the most important factor influencing social behavior and collective action. Values, in this scheme, are the foundation for social system integration and institutionalized action (Knottnerus, 1983).

Value-added theory explains how grievances turn into generalized beliefs and then into social movements (Arthur, 2005). Value-added theory, also referred to as social strain theory, is part of a larger body of theory called strain theory. Strain refers to the cycle of inadequate regulation at the societal level that negatively impacts how the individual perceives his or her needs, means, and opportunities. Value-added theory of collective behavior argues that individuals join hostile and radical social movements because they experience social strain. Social movements develop to reassure members that action is being taken to address strain, grievances, and deprivation (Weeber & Rodeheaver, 2003).

The value-added theory of collective behavior can be used to understand all variations in collective behavior. According to Lewis (1972), the determinants of collective behavior, structural conduciveness, structural strain, growth of a generalized hostile belief, mobilization of participants for action and operation of social control, take into account a vast range of scenarios that may result in collective behavior such as social movements. While value-added theory explains all types of collective behavior, value-added theory is particularly suited to analyzing and possibly predicting collective hostile outbursts. Hostile outbursts, a form of collective action often a precursor to social movement, refer to the act of mobilization for action under a hostile belief. The spread of hostile outbursts is understood in two main ways: real and derived phases.

• The real phase of a collective hostile outburst forms in response to the accumulation of unfavorable conditions prior to the beginning of the hostile outburst.

• The derived phase of a collective hostile outburst includes a divide between the hostility and the conditions that caused the outburst (Lewis, 1972).

History

Neil Smelser (1930–) developed value-added theory, also referred to as social strain theory, in the 1960s in response to the belief that all social movements form in the same way. Over the course of his career, Smelser has served as a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford, president of the American Sociological Association, a member of the National Academy of Sciences, and a fellow of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences. Smelser disagreed with the notion that social movements have a predetermined life cycle or stages through which each social movement will move. Smelser, mentored by Talcott Parsons, is a sociologist of collective behavior, social change, and social movements. Smelser's best-known works include the following: Economy and Society (1956); Social Change in the Industrial Revolution (1959); Theory of Collective Behavior (1962); The Sociology of Economic Life (1962, 1973); Essays in Sociological Explanation (1968); Comparative Methods in the Social Sciences (1976); Social Paralysis and Social Change (1991); Social Change and Modernity (1992); and Diversity and Its Discontents (1999).

Smelser based his value-added theory of collective behavior on the belief that collective behavior and social movements occur when feelings of deprivation and strain are created by a culture in contact with a more dominant culture. Smelser viewed social movements, particularly revitalization movements, as an adaptive response to feelings of economic deprivation and social strain. Smelser based his value-added theory of collective behavior, which posits that social movements result from a lack of social integration, on the works of Talcott Parsons and Emile Durkheim. Smelser developed his value-added theory of collective action in response to and opposition to the solidarity theory of collective behavior which argues that solidarity and organization (rather than disorganization) facilitate and promote the development of social movements. Ultimately, Smelser's value-added theory can be understood as a description of the specification of conditions necessary for deprivation, strain, and grievance to cause collective episodes (Knottnerus, 1983).

Value-added theory, like other psychological theories of collective identity and collective action, argues that social movements form from individuals who are emotionally reacting to social situations outside of their direct control. Traditional theories of social movements (including value-added theory, relative deprivation theory, and mass society theory) seek to provide a global explanation of social movements and see the category of social movements as including personal change movements, such as cults and communes, and institutional change movements, such as the labor movement. Collective behavior theories (as advocated by Durkheim, Blumer, and Smelser) consider social movements to be irrational and the result of personal grievances and discontent (Fuchs, 2006).

Traditional social-psychological theories of social movements, such as value-added theory, relative deprivation theory, and mass society theory, considered participation in social movements to be irrational and unconventional behavior. The traditional social-psychological theories of social movements focused on what attracted individuals to social movements including personality traits, grievances, disillusionment, and ideology. Value-added theory, relative deprivation theory, and mass society theory, are united by their efforts to understand the individual problems that arise from social change and assume that the participants in social movements are isolated, desperate, and irrational.

Value-added theory belongs to the larger body of interdisciplinary theory called social movement theory. Social movement theory refers to the study of social mobilization including its social, cultural, and political manifestations and consequences. Social movement theory proposes that social movements are, in many instances, created through the use and manipulation of frames. Social movements, including hostile social movements such as militias, influence and control their members through tactics such as mobilizing fear, engaging in frame appropriation, social constructionism, and counterframing. Social movement scholarship is often motivated by a desire for social change and integrates scholarship and activism. In the case of value-added theory, social movement theorists study individual and group grievances to understand how and why social movements form. Social movement theory began in the late nineteenth century; the interdisciplinary history of social movement theory includes six main areas of study:

• Value-added theory;

• Structural-strain theory;

• Relative deprivation theory;

• Resource mobilization theory;

• Mass society theory;

• New social movement theory (Benford & Snow, 2000).

Value added theory was a predominant social movement theory throughout the 1960s, however; in the late 1960s, social scientific studies of collective action experienced a paradigm shift. Theories of collective action evolved from a focus on collective behavior in the early twentieth century to resource mobilization in the 1970s and then to the political process and new social movements in the 1990s (Edelman, 2001). Resource mobilization theory replaced value-added theory in the 1970s as the predominant explanation for the origins and character of social movements. Resource mobilization theorists largely abandoned the social-psychological analysis of social movements characterized by relative value-added theory, deprivation theory, and mass society theory. Resource mobilization theory refers to the idea that social movements arise from long-term changes in a group's organization, available resources, and opportunities for group action. While traditional theories focused on the problem of individual participation in social movements, resource mobilization theory focused on the economic and political variables. Resource mobilization theory remained the dominant social movement theory from the 1960s through the 1980s (Klandermans, 1984).

Applications

Sociologists use value-added theory to explain the origins of social movements. Social movements refer to a deliberate voluntary organization of individuals who act in concert to make or block changes. Social movements tend to be power-oriented groups rather than participation-oriented movements. This distinction means that the group actions of social movements are not necessarily of primary benefit to individual members but instead serve the groups' larger goals. Coordinated group actions are undertaken to make changes in the larger sociopolitical context. Social movements tend to be most successful in open, democratic societies in which social mobility and social change are accepted concepts (Morrison, 1971).

Smelser, the originator of value-added theory, has very particular guidelines or parameters for the application of value-added theory to social scenarios. For example, Smelser instructed social scientists to look for negative evidence as a means of evaluating whether or not the value-added theory of collective behavior is relevant to a social situation. Smelser argued that two types of social movement scenarios exist:

• First, a collective episode occurs but one or more determinants of collective action are absent.

• Second, all the determinants of collective action are identified but no collective action outburst occurs (Knottnerus, 1983).

Social movement theorists use value-added theory of collective behavior to extensively evaluate whether or not collective action occurs. The following examples of value-added analyses of collective behavior include a wide range of collective behaviors in different historical periods, societies and institutions.

• Social scientists used elements of the value-added theory of collective behavior, to explain a 1914 outbreak of monoplane sightings within British South Africa. Researchers identified the collective behavior as a form of mass hysteria or “negative or hostile hysterical belief manifestation.” All of Smelser's determinants of collective action, such as “structural conduciveness, structural strain, growth and spread of a generalized belief, mobilization of participants for action, and inadequate measures by agencies of social control, were found to be present” prior to and during the collective episode of monoplane sightings (Bartholomew, 1989, Abstract).

• Social scientists used value-added theory of collective behavior to study militia presence and activity on the Internet. Researchers hypothesized that individuals who join militias tend to have experienced periods of social strain (as described by Smesler). Researchers analyzed the content of Internet traffic of US militia websites as a means of exploring what types of individuals joined militias. Ultimately, researchers, from 1998–2001, gathered information on 171 men and women from 28 different US militias. Researchers confirmed Smelser's value-added theory of collective behavior by finding that militia joiners tend to experience social strain prior to and during the time of their militia involvement. In addition, researchers confirmed that Smelser's determinants of collective action, in particular “structural conduciveness, structural strain, growth and spread of a generalized belief, mobilization of participants for action, and inadequate measures by agencies of social control,” were present (Weeber & Rodeheaver, 2003).

• Social scientists used value-added theory of collective behavior to study a short period of time, two and a half hours, on May 4, 1970 at Kent State University when four students were killed and nine students were wounded. Researchers studied the events occurring prior to and during the campus attack. Researchers found that Smelser's determinants to collective action, in particular structural conduciveness, structural strain, growth and spread of a generalized belief, mobilization of participants for action, and inadequate measures by agencies of social control, were present prior to and leading up to the hostile outburst (Lewis, 1972).

Ultimately, value-added theory, which can be used to explain all types of collective behavior, is particularly suited to analyzing and possibly predicting collective hostile outbursts. Hostile outbursts, a form of collective action that is often a precursor to social movement, refers to mobilization for action under a hostile belief. The spread of hostile outbursts, such as the Kent State killing and militia involvement described above, is understood in two main ways: real and derived phases.

• The real phase of a collective hostile outburst forms in response to the accumulation of unfavorable conditions prior to the beginning of the hostile outburst.

• The derived phase of a collective hostile outburst includes a divide between the hostility and the conditions that caused the outburst (Lewis, 1972).

Value-added theory of collective behavior argues that individuals join hostile or radical social movements because they experience strain. Value-added theory argues that social movement develops to reassure members that action is being taken to address strain, grievances, and deprivation (Weeber & Rodeheaver, 2003).

Issues

Smelser's value-added theory of collective behavior was the predominant theoretical explanation for social movements in the 1960s but fell out of favor in the 1970s. Critics of Smelser's Value-added theory of collective behavior argued that the theory was overly objective in nature. Value-added theory argues that all collective behavior is irrational. Ultimately, value-added theory, with its focus on identifying and labeling the determinants and conditions associated with particular social action, has a limited usefulness and applicability for social scientists (Bartholomew, 1989). In addition, contemporary social movement theorists find fault with the functionalist foundation and leanings of value-added theory. Functionalism explains all social behavior and social institutions as an effort or means of satisfying basic human needs. Functionalist explanations, which are characterized by the idea that social institutions exist solely to meet social needs, tend to be disempowering to social actors in society. Lastly, critics of value-added theory of collective behavior find fault with the theory's argument that all strains on society are disruptive. Social movement theorists have documented numerous strains and resulting social movements that have created positive change for society. Examples of strains and their resulting positive social movements and include the civil rights movement and the environmental movement (Arthur, 2005).

Conclusion

Neil Smelser's value-added theory of collective behavior is a useful tool for determining, and in some instances predicting, whether collective behavior will occur. The value-added theory, developed in the 1960s, argues that a specific combination of determinants facilitates and promotes collective outcomes. These social conditions or determinants required for the development of a social movement include structural conduciveness, structural strain, generalized beliefs, precipitating factors, mobilization of participants, and social control.

• Structured conduciveness refers to a social situation that permits some types of collective behavior.

• Structural strain refers to a situation in which some type of measurable deprivation exists.

• Growth and spread of a generalized belief refers to a belief that makes the situation meaningful to actors by identifying the source of strain, attributing characteristics to the source, and specifying possible or appropriate responses to the strain.

• Precipitating factors refers to an act that confirms a generalized belief or exaggerates a condition of strain.

• Mobilization of participants for action refers to bringing the affected group into action.

• Social control refers to the counter-determinants that prevent, interrupt, deflect, or inhibit the accumulation of the previous determinants.

The value-added theory of collective behavior can be used to understand all variations in collective behavior. The determinants of collective behavior—structural conduciveness, structural strain, growth of a generalized hostile belief, mobilization of participants for action and operation of social control—take into account a vast range of scenarios that may result in collective behavior, i.e., social movements. In the value-added theory of collective behavior, the four components which are said to account for social behavior, situational facilities, roles, norms, and values, can be studied to predict where grievances, strain, and deprivation are likely to occur (Knottnerus, 1983). Value-added theory explains how grievances, often caused by tension or conflict in expected values, norms, or roles, turn into generalized beliefs and ultimately into social movements (Arthur, 2005).

Terms & Concepts

Collective Behavior: Spontaneous social actions that occur outside of prevailing social structures and institutions.

Collective Identity: The tendency of social movements to form a self-image for individual participants.

Mass Society Theory: An interdisciplinary critique of mass media's effect on society.

Relative Deprivation Theory: The idea that feelings of deprivation and discontent are related to a desired point of reference.

Resource Mobilization Theory: The idea that social movements arise from long-term changes in a group's organization, available resources, and opportunities for group action.

Social Movements: Deliberate voluntary organization of individuals who act in concert to make or block changes.

Social Movement Theory: The study of social mobilization including its social, cultural, and political manifestations and consequences.

Society: A group of individuals united by values, norms, culture, or organizational affiliation.

Sociology: The scientific study of human social behavior, human association, and the results of social activities.

Strain: The cycle of inadequate regulation at the societal level that negatively impacts how the individual perceives his or her needs, means, and opportunities.

Structural-Strain Theory: Theory which asserts that structures in society may promote deviance and crime.

Value-Added Theory: A social movement theory which argues that certain social conditions are necessary for the development of social movements.

Bibliography

Bartholomew, R. (1989). The South African monoplane hysteria: An evaluation of the usefulness of Smelser's theory of hysterical beliefs. Sociological Inquiry, 59 , 287-300. Retrieved May 18, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13759881&site=ehost-live

Benford, R. & Snow, D. (2000). Framing processes and social movements: An overview and assessment. Annual Review of Sociology, 26 , 611-639. Retrieved May 11, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3780387&site=ehost-live

Edelman, M. (2001). Social movement: Changing paradigms and forms of politics. Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, 285-317.

Fuchs, C. (2006). The self-organization of social movements. Systemic Practice and Action Research, 19 , 101-137.

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Knotterus, J. (1983). The Melanesian cargo cults: A test of the value-added theory of collective behavior. Sociological Inquiry, 53 , 389-403. Retrieved May 18, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier: ‗HL0:AN:13794099::‗http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph& AN=13794099&site=ehost-live‗hl‗

Lewis, J. (1972). A study of the Kent State incident using Smelser's theory of collective behavior. Sociological Inquiry, 42 , 87-96. Retrieved May 17, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13794046&site=ehost-live

Marx, G. (2012). Looking at Smelser's theory of collective behavior after almost 50 years: A review and appreciation. American Sociologist, 43, 135-152. Retrieved October 27, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=76459540

Morrison, D. (1971). Some notes toward theory on relative deprivation, social movements, and social change. The American Behavioral Scientist, 14 , 675.

Poulson, S. C., Ratliff, T. N., & Dollieslager, E. (2013). YOU HAVE TO FIGHT! FOR YOUR RIGHT! TO PARTY! STRUCTURE, CULTURE, AND MOBILIZATION IN A UNIVERSITY PARTY RIOT. Research In Social Movements, Conflicts & Change, 36, 269-305. Retrieved October 27, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89265580

Springer, V. A., Lalasz, C. B., & Lykes, V. A. (2012). Social action in response to terrorism: Understanding xenophobic violence from a value-added perspective. Social Science Journal, 49, 175-182. Retrieved October 27, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=77287833

Weeber, S. & Rodeheaver, D. (2003). Militias at the millennium: A test of Smelser's theory of collective behavior. Sociological Quarterly, 44 , 181-205. Retrieved May 18, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=10492981&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Beckford, J. (1990). Ferment without synthesis. American Sociologist, 21 , 283-285. Retrieved May 18, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=9602290720&site=ehost-live

Maines, D. (1990). Pursuing the simplifications in Smelser's vision. American Sociologist, 21 , 294-297. Retrieved May 18, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=9602290723&site=ehost-live

Mann, L. & Nagel, T. (1976). A study of economic panic: The "run" on the Hindmarsh building society. Sociometry, 39 , 223-235. Retrieved May 18, 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=15235394&site=ehost-live

Morrison, D. R., & Isaac, L. W. (2012). Insurgent images: Genre selection and visual frame amplification in IWW cartoon art. Social Movement Studies, 11, 61-78. Retrieved October 27, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=71517850

Smelser, N. J. (2007). The Faces of Terrorism : Social and Psychological Dimensions. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. Retrieved October 27, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost). http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=286616&site=ehost-live