Sociological Practice: Applied and Clinical

Sociology can be defined as the scientific study of systematic relationships between human beings and the patterns of social life (Straus, 2002). Sociologists are concerned with patterns of behavior and experiences related to social arrangements. Those arrangements may be considered normal (or normative), or they may be considered outside the norm, or aberrant. Social arrangements, however, are not set in stone. They are created or shaped by social actions, social interactions, and structures (like social institutions) at different levels, such as families, communities, work groups, states, and nations. This view allows the applied or clinical sociologist to make sense out of otherwise seemingly random or senseless behaviors and to link private troubles to public issues (Mills, 1959). According to the American Sociological Association, "The applied sociologist is a research specialist who produces information that is useful in resolving problems in government, industry, and other practice settings. In contrast, clinical sociology is the application of the sociological perspective to facilitate change" (2003, p. 2). Clinical sociology is an interventionist approach and allows the sociologist to become more involved with clients. While the two types of practice are distinctly different and unique, they are also considered to be complementary.

Keywords Applied Sociology; Clinical Sociology; Interventionist Approach; Macrosociology; Mediation; Qualitative Research; Quantitative Research; Sociotherapist

Sociology & Related Fields > Sociological Practice: Applied & Clinical

Overview

Sociology can be defined as the scientific study of systematic relationships between human beings and the patterns of social life (Straus, 2002). Sociologists are concerned with patterns of behavior and experiences related to social arrangements. Those arrangements may be considered normal (or normative), or they may be considered outside the norm, or aberrant. Social arrangements, however, are not set in stone. They are created or shaped by social actions, social interactions, and structures (like social institutions) at different levels, such as families, communities, work groups, states, and nations. This macro view allows the applied or clinical sociologist to make sense out of otherwise seemingly random or senseless behaviors and to link private troubles to public issues (Mills, 1959). According to the American Sociological Association, "The applied sociologist is a research specialist who produces information that is useful in resolving problems in government, industry, and other practice settings. In contrast, clinical sociology is the application of the sociological perspective to facilitate change" (2003, p. 2). Clinical sociology is an interventionist approach that allows the sociologist to become more involved with clients. While the two types of practice are distinctly different and unique, they are also considered to be complementary.

The Roots of Applied & Clinical Sociology

The development of sociology in the United States was quite distinct from its European trajectory. While nineteenth and early twentieth century European sociology was largely, though not exclusively, built on theory and focused on understanding and generating knowledge about society and social change, sociology in the United States was more focused on using theory in conjunction with practical intervention. At the beginning of the twentieth century American sociologists engendered new and exciting ways of studying society with a view to creating social change and personal transformation. This approach to sociology has been termed both applied and clinical.

The interventionist model that underpins both clinical and applied sociology was formed largely at the University of Chicago during the late 1800s through the 1930s, as researchers sought to develop a social scientific approach to the problems of a rapidly urbanizing society (Straus, 2002). This approach was typified in the work of W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963), a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), who began very much in the practical sociological tradition and became increasingly committed to social action to combat the effects of racial discrimination of African Americans(Straus, 2002).

Williams and MacLean (2005) suggest that sociology in the United States always had a dual identity from its inception as an academic discipline. This duality created an interest in both the theoretical and the practical:

From the beginning, sociology had a dual constituency. The meliorists and those interested in more scholarly pursuits were stakeholders in discipline-building and both defined themselves as scientists. By scientifically studying social conditions they proclaimed their ability to make a difference in the world. (p. 112)

Dual identity aside, many American sociologists of the early twentieth century, particularly those associated with the University of Chicago, saw themselves as contributing directly to public life, and they strove to integrate a social scientific approach with practical applications. This is the legacy on which applied and clinical sociology are based.

While both applied and clinical sociology are interventionist, there are some differences in how they approach intervention.

Applied & Clinical Sociology Defined

While for some sociologists, participation in social action is a violation of the value neutral stance of the discipline (Rebach & Bruhn, 2001). For others, neutrality and objectivity are impossible goals that reflect a refusal to acknowledge the intersection of personal experience and public issues. Applied and clinical sociology operate at this intersection.

Steele and Price (2004) observe that applied and clinical sociology entails "Any use (often client-centered) of the sociological perspective and/or its tools in the understanding of, intervention in, and/or enhancement of human social life" (p. 154). In this definition, applied and clinical sociology take a distinct knowledge or discipline-based approaches to diagnosing and solving problems that exist in everyday social life. For sociologists in the early twentieth century, this meant understanding the impact of rapid urbanization and acting on its specific problems. Examples include:

• Migration and settlement in Chicago, where Jane Addams founded Hull House in 1889 as a resource for immigrants;
• Poverty in London, where Beatrice and Sidney Webb launched the Fabian Society in 1884 — a socialist society committed to gradual social reform.

Applied and clinical sociology have much in common, but they differ in their approach to research, intervention, and social change. For example, applied sociology uses a set of methodological and analytical tools to address specific social problems, such as measuring the impact of after-school programs on children's academic performance. Accordingly, contemporary applied sociology might focus on collecting data about the impact of after-school programs on disadvantaged youth's academic achievement and behaviors and use these data to improve program implementation.

Clinical sociology uses the same tools to diagnose social problems and create interventions at the individual or family level to improve human interactions (Fritz, 1993). So for instance, it might focus on the quality of relationships between program coordinators and young people themselves in order to improve the experience of participation in such programs.

For both applied and clinical sociology, the findings of sociological research channel creative thinking for the analysis of a problem and design of an intervention (Rebach & Bruhn, 2001). Similarly, both applied and clinical sociology are characterized by certain fundamental themes:

• Problems are defined as social problems.
• Intervention is guided by the scientific method.
• Sociology provides the knowledge and skills base.
• Humanistic values guide practice.

Further Insights

Applied Sociology

While all aspects of sociological practice have their foundations in theory, applied sociology uses theory and research methodologies to solve social problems through program evaluation, policy analysis, examining social norms, and using the ideas from research studies to encourage social improvement and progress (Weinstein, 2000).

Some of the areas that applied sociologists concern themselves include:

• Criminal justice system and social control
• Welfare system
• Social processes (e.g. within health and medicine)
• Familial relationships
• Organizational structures (such as education, government)
• Community development and change

Applied sociologists typically work between both micro and macro levels, where they can serve in the dual role of researcher and interventionist. For example, applied sociologists may provide policy analysis or community planning, both conducting research and working with a team to implement strategies or recommendations.

Applied sociologists are concerned with the ways society functions on a practical level and are often hired as consultants to think through and solve particular problems associated with, for instance, racism, prejudice, discrimination, poverty, gang violence, child abuse, and domestic violence (Ogle, 2007). They do so using road maps derived from sociological research and theory.

First, the systems approach views society as a system seeking order and balance. Straus (2002) suggests that applied sociologists using this approach focus on social actions oriented to achieving social consensus and ask why a particular social arrangement exists or what function it serves. In this approach, consensus is central. Second, interactionism, or the conduct paradigm, focuses on how society is shaped and guided by how people, places, and events are collectively defined. The central premise of this approach is that conduct distinguishes the behavior of people from other living creatures and is self-conscious, self-directed, and organized according to social rules and oriented toward goals that are not immediately present. In this approach, applied sociologists address how people interpret social phenomena and how this impacts their actions. Third, critical theory is used to highlight contrasts and oppositions between individual and group interests and how these generate social practices associated with attaining certain goals. Conflict is inevitable in this paradigm and applied sociologists use this approach to identify potential for conflict and develop solutions.

Applied sociology typically uses research methodologies to develop insights into people, problems, and practices as the basis for recommendations. It deploys both quantitative (e.g. surveys) and qualitative (e.g. interviews, observations) methods to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data may be important, for instance, for applied sociologists conducting evaluations that seek to measure the impact of a particular program on specified social or behavioral outcomes. Qualitative data may be important for applied sociologists exploring social processes within an organization, such as doctor-patient communication in a health care setting.

Clinical Sociology

In general, we are accustomed to thinking of psychologists, psychiatrists, and clinical social workers as clinicians. Like these professionals, clinical sociologists work in numerous settings and provide interventionist strategies for clients in need. As they are actively involved in social change, they fill a wide range of roles, such as sociotherapy:

“The clinical sociologist in effect practices sociotherapy that allows the problems, their explanations, and the strategies and techniques for treatment to emerge… [from] a process of interaction in which disclosure and discovery lead to an understanding of the social context out of which the problems emerged” (American Sociological Association, 2003, p. 13).

Clinical sociologists, or sociotherapists, work in many different types of settings. These include hospitals, halfway houses, social service agencies, mental health services, and some may even choose to open a private practice. Like other clinicians, the clinical sociologist works with many challenged clients who cope with mental health and behavioral issues. However, unlike a psychiatrist, they do not prescribe medication, nor can they admit someone into a hospital.

Clinical sociologists do the same things that other sociologists do — they theorize, conceptualize, observe, test, evaluate, teach, do research, and become involved in professional and community service (Rebach & Bruhn, 2001). However, clinical sociologists typically work at the micro level with individuals and families. They conceptualize the individual as a social unit in relationship with family, relatives, other primary and secondary groups, age group, history, and heritage group, gender, education level, economic status, and cultural group.

Various practices, procedures, and intervention methodologies enable the clinical sociologist to design interventions that acknowledge the social context and dynamics in which individual problems are situated. The process of all clinical sociology involves the dynamic interaction between the professional, the client, and those who affect, or are affected by, the client.

For example, a clinical sociologist may work in the field of conflict intervention and help clients to see the impact that various relationships and social factors (such as class, race, age, and gender) have on their ability to acknowledge and resolve conflict. Or they may help clients see more broadly how social context can affect their mental health (Wright and Ballinger, 2007).

What differentiates clinical sociology from other forms of clinical practice is its ability to "move among a number of levels (e.g., individual, organization, and community or micro/meso/macro) in order to analyze and/or intervene" (Fritz, 2006, p.3).

Clinical sociology can be accredited at both masters and doctoral levels, and their practice, according to Fritz (2006), as both clinicians and agents of change is governed by specific rules. These include:

• Working from an ethical foundation
• Practicing inclusiveness
• Always working with peoples' interests in mind
• Encouraging the awareness of other peoples' points of views
• Recognition that interdependence is an important factor in change
• The use of capacity building and the perspective that change is a long-term process.

Typically, clinical sociologists follow a pattern of intervention. First, they assess individuals and their partners, families, and significant others. Second, they plan and negotiate an intervention plan. Third, clinicians implement the "who, what, when, where, and how" of the chosen intervention strategy. Finally, they evaluate the intervention, which involves monitoring progress toward meeting planned objectives.

Clinical intervention is a process that involves behavior change, thus, clinical sociologists adhere to certain ethical standards. Conflict of interest issues, informed consent, confidentiality, and public disclosure of information are all issues of concern for the social scientist (Rebach & Bruhn, 2001).

Applications

Applied & Clinical Sociology Professionalization

Certification/licensure and accreditation are key developments in applied and clinical sociology, which have contributed to their professionalization. The American Sociological Association first developed the certification process in 1983 and encourages applied and clinical sociologists to submit to the certification process. There are also a number of professional associations to which an applied or clinical sociologist can belong such as the American Sociological Association: Section on Sociological Practice and Public Sociology, the Association for Humanist Sociology, the International Sociological Association, the Society for the Study of Social Problems, the Sociological Practice Association, and the Society for Applied Sociology.

According to the American Sociological Association (2003, p. 21) certification accomplishes a number of specific goals:

• Illustrates to a potential employer/client that you have problem-solving skills that include the ability to analyze, evaluate, and implement solutions to a real world challenge.
• Illustrates to a potential employer/client that you identify yourself as a professional.
• Contributes to your credibility when working with other professionals such as medical doctors, lawyers, or social workers.
• Gives you confidence and a social network that supports your work as a sociological practitioner.

Careers in Applied & Clinical Sociology

Both applied and clinical sociology provide graduates in sociology with a broad range of career options. For those who seek a career in applied sociology, some of the following careers are possible:

• Consultant to either the corporate or non-profit sector
• Manager of Human Resources
• Program Manager
• Policy Analyst
• Program Director
• Community Planning
• Criminal Justice Work (Program Evaluation and Assessment) — corrections, parole, probation
• Government Services
• Health Services — family planning, substance abuse services, rehabilitation services
• Fundraising for Social Services

For those who seek a career in clinical sociology, the following careers are possible:

• Counselor/Sociotherapist
• Mediator
• Group Facilitator
• Mitigation Expert
• Organizational Consultant
• Social Advocate
• Community Consultant
• Program Evaluator
• Teacher/Trainer

Terms & Concepts

Applied Sociology: The branch of sociology that uses sociological theory and research to develop methods to solve social problems or improve society.

Clinical Sociology: "A multidisciplinary, humanistic field that assesses and reduces problems through analysis and intervention" (Fritz, 2006).

Interventionist Approach: Efforts undertaken by a state to influence the outcome of an issue over which it does not have direct control.

Macrosociology: An approach to sociology that focuses on studying society on a large scale and at a high level of abstraction.

Mediation: A form of conflict resolution in which an impartial, third party mediator attempts to help two other parties resolve their conflict on terms they find mutually agreeable. The mediator attempts to improve communication between the parties with the aim of helping them articulate a mutually acceptable agreement.

Qualitative Research: Qualitative research aims to gather an in-depth understanding of a phenomenon through a variety of non-quantifiable methods. Qualitative research typically gathers data through four different methods: participation in the phenomenon in its natural setting; direct observation of the phenomena; interviews with participants; and the analysis of records and documents created by participants.

Quantitative Research: Quantitative research investigates a phenomenon's quantitative properties using empirically verifiable hypotheses and mathematical and statistical models.

Sociotherapy: A type of counseling that seeks to realize the individual and collective therapeutic goals of a group of clients, such as nursing home residents, by managing the group's living environment, usually within a clinical setting. This type of therapy tends to focus more on clients' interpersonal relationships than on their individual psyches.

Bibliography

American Sociological Association. (2003). Careers in clinical sociology, First Edition. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from: http://www2.asanet.org/student/career/clinsoc%5F45575v2.pdf

Balinger, L., & Wright, J. (2007). Does class count? Social class and counselling. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 7, 157-163.

Carey, T. A., et al. (2007). Psychological change from the inside looking out: A qualitative investigation. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 7, 178-187.

Cohen, A. C. (2011). Investigating the apathy toward applied sociology. Journal of Applied Social Sciences (19367244), 5, 53-65. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=65540012

Fritz, J. M. (2006). The development of the field of clinical sociology. Unpublished paper. Retrieved September 12, 2008, from: http://digilander.libero.it/cp47/clinica/fritz.htm

Goldman-Schuyler, K., & Branagan, L. (2000). The power line: A model for generating a systemic focus on organizational health. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from Coherent Change website: http://coherent.org/dox/Powerline-Goldman-Schuyler.pdf.

Lu, Y., Ain, E., Chamorro, C., Chang, C., Feng, J., Fong, R., & ... Yu, M. (2011). A new methodology for assessing social work practice: The adaptation of the objective structured clinical evaluation (SW-OSCE). Social Work Education, 30, 170-185. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=57867276

Mills, C. W. (1959). The sociological imagination. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ogles, R. H. (2007). Advice to beginning graduate students on possible sociological phenomena to empirically investigate. The Discourse of Sociological Practice, 8, 87-91. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text.: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=25482417&site=ehost-live

Perlstadt, H. (1998). Bringing sociological theory and practice together: A pragmatic solution. Sociological Perspectives, 41, 1-7. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from Michigan State University: https://www.msu.edu/∼perlstad/Bringing%5fSociological%5fTheory%5fand%5fPractice%5f ‗Together.pdf

Rebach, H. M., & Bruhn, J. G. (Eds.). (2001). Handbook of clinical sociology. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

Steele, S. F., & Price, J. (2004). Applied sociology: Topics,and tasks. Belmon, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth.

Strauss, R. A. (2002). Using sociology: An introduction from the applied and clinicalperspectives. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.

Swan, L. (1985). Grounded-encounter therapy: A sociodiagnostic and sociotherapeutic approach. Mid-American Review of Sociology, 10, 93-109. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=16815254

Weinstein, J. (2000). The place of theory in applied sociology: A reflection. Theory and Science,1. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from: http://theoryandscience.icaap.org/content/vol001.001/01weinstein%5frevised d.html

Williams, J. E., & Maclean, V. M. (2005). Studying ourselves: Sociologydiscipline-building in the United States. American Sociologist, 36, 111-113. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from EBSCO online database, SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=19510806&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Bruhn, J. G., & Rebach. H. M. (1996). Clinical sociology: An agenda for action. New York, N.Y.: Springer Publishing.

Dentler, R. A. (2002). Practicing sociology: Selected fields. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing.

Fritz, J. M. (2008). International clinical sociology. New York, N.Y.: Springer Publishing.

Shaw, T. V., Lee, B. R., & Wulczyn, F. (2012). “I thought I hated data”: Preparing MSW students for data-driven practice. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 32, 78-89. Retrieved October 31, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=71115710