Sociology of Education

This article presents an overview of the sociology of education. Unlike many academic disciplines, the sociology of education is a relatively new field of study. Despite its short history, however, it is a rich and diverse field. Educational sociologists study a variety of topics, using a variety of theoretical approaches and methodologies. Unlike educational psychologists who study the relationship between learning and an individual student's mental processes (e.g. memory, attention, and perception), educational sociologists are interested in the relationship between learning and variables outside the individual's control - such as family background, race, access to resources, and social class. They also study education as a social institution, and its relationship to other institutions and society in general. The following will highlight some of the theoretical, methodological, and topical contributions of the field.

Keywords Conflict Theory; Durkheim, Emile; Interaction Theory; Positivism; Postmodernism; Sociology; Structural-Functionalism; Qualitative Methodologies

Overview

Unlike many academic disciplines, the sociology of education is a relatively new field of study. Although it is an outgrowth of sociology, whose origins date to the turn of the 20th century, sociologists didn't begin systematically studying educational institutions until the 1950s. Prior to that time, sociological studies in education were few in number, were largely based on anecdotal evidence and value judgments, and avoided the more controversial aspects of teaching and learning (Ballantine, 1997; Boocock, 1985).

In general, sociology is the study of people in groups, or more specifically, the study of human societies and social interaction. Sociologists sometimes describe their field as the study of social structures and institutions, and the processes that bring the structures and institutions alive (Ballantine, 1997). Education and schools are but one institution of society; others include family, religion, politics, economics, and health. The sociology of education should also be distinguished from the psychology of education, which focuses on the mental processes - such as memory, perception, and cognitive stages of development - that affect learning. Whereas psychologists study achievement in relation to the individual, sociologists study achievement in relation to the larger social environment.

Even though the sociology of education emerged more recently than some academic disciplines, it has grown exponentially in the last several decades. As a field, the diversity of theoretical perspectives, levels of analyses, and questions asked make it impossible to define singularly. As one sociologist explains, "any attempt to encompass or sum up the sociology of education within a single framework is fraught with difficulties. Indeed, there is no single, unified or stable discipline or intellectual project to which we can refer" (Ball, 2004, p. 1). Nevertheless, the following will attempt to summarize the discipline by outlining its theoretical and methodological history, and by taking a brief look at some of its core topics of study.

Applications: Theoretical & Methodological Approaches

Structural - Functionalism

As a theoretical perspective, structural-functionalism is known by many different names which include functionalism, consensus theory, and equilibrium theory (Ballantine, 1997). Functionalists approach the sociology of education from a macro level, arguing that society and its institutions are made up of interdependent parts, all of which function together to create a whole. They often use the body as a metaphor, suggesting that schools contribute to the healthy functioning of society in much the same way as the heart, for example, contributes to the healthy functioning of the body.

Emile Durkheim, a professor of pedagogy in early 20th century France, was not only one of the earliest proponents of functionalism, he is also considered the "father of sociology," and one of the first to study education from a sociological perspective. Durkheim studied many aspects of society - including but not limited to religion, crime, and suicide - but his contributions to the sociology of teaching and learning are documented in his works Moral Education, The Evolution of Educational Thought, and Education and Sociology.

One of the questions Durkheim spent much of his lifetime studying was the way in which societies maintain and reproduce themselves. As a functionalist, he believed schools served a critical role in perpetuating a society. He wrote, "Education is the influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet ready for social life. Its object is to arouse and to develop in the child a certain number of physical, intellectual and moral states which are demanded of him by…the political society" (as quoted in Ballantine, 1997, p. 7). He also recognized that schools would differ across time and place, in relation to the larger society in which they were embedded.

Critics of Durkheim and of functionalists more generally, argue that functionalism fails to take into account conflict and instability. It may explain how some societies maintain the status quo, but it doesn't adequately represent reality to the extent that groups of people often have different agendas and goals, and subscribe to different ideologies. Ballantine (1997) suggests "that the dominant theoretical approach of structural-functionalism has not been capable of moving the field ahead because of its status quo orientation in a society faced with constant change" (p. 8).

Michael Apple (2013), on the other hand, wrote that “one of the things that sets [educational sociologist] Stephen Ball apart from many others is his insistence that both structural and poststructural theories and analyses are necessary for ‘bearing witness’ and for an adequate critical understanding of educational realities” (Apple, 2013). Apple then demonstrates how Ball “creatively employs both sets of traditions.”

Conflict Theory

As its name suggests, conflict theory assumes a much less stable view of society than structural-functionalism. Based largely on the writings of Karl Marx and Max Weber, conflict theorists suggest that a society is largely defined by two groups - those who have a larger share of the resources, often referred to as 'the haves,' and those who have few resources, often referred to as the 'have nots.' Societies are generally unstable because the 'have nots' compete with the 'haves' to gain more resources; change is inevitable and happens quickly.

One of the predominant issues studied by present-day conflict theorists is class structure, and the role education plays in its perpetuation. Schools are often thought to be vehicles for upward social mobility, but according to conflict theorists, "education in fact serves to reproduce inequalities based on power, income, and social status" (Ballantine, 1997, p. 64). Bowles and Gintis (1976), and more recently Apple (1993) and Giroux (1994), suggest that capitalists control access to educational resources, thereby reproducing existing class structures. But conflict theorists recognize the possibility of change, and the individual's ability to fight the system. Willis' (1979) classic study of working-class boys in England was one of the first to document the ways in which students resist the dominant power structure.

Interaction Theories

While stucturalists and conflict theorists understand society and education very differently, both have been criticized for ignoring what happens in schools on a micro-level - in terms of the person-to-person interactions between students and teachers, for example, and in terms of what (content) is taught and how (method) it is taught. As a result, interaction theorists have adopted a more social-psychological approach to education, studying individuals in interaction with one another, recognizing that they bring shared norms to the interaction, as well as individual differences based on social class, race, gender, and experience.

Some of the questions that interactionists have introduced to the field include the impact of teacher expectations on student achievement, the relationship of socio-economic status to achievement, and the way in which a student's understanding and experience of education is a function of her cultural and ethnic background.

Labeling Theory - the idea that labels can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, as when a teacher calls a student dumb and he acts in such a way as to confirm the label - and Exchange Theory - the notion that there are rewards and costs in every interaction - are two offshoots of interaction theories (Ballantine, 1997).

Standpoint Theories

Before discussing the theoretical approach of what are sometimes called 'standpoint theories' (Ball, 2004), it is important to make a note about methodology. Although methodology and theory are not necessarily determined by one another, Ball (2004) shows how shifts in the way education is studied (method) can lead to shifts in theory and content as well. While positivism - the notion that the social sciences can be studied in much the same way as the natural sciences, using empirical, objectivity-seeking, quantitative analysis - brought legitimacy to the developing field of sociology of education in the 1950s, it was the rejection of positivism in the 1970s and 80s that opened to the door to standpoint theories. In a critique of the positivists, qualitative methodologists argue "No theorizing, however ingenious, and no observance of scientific protocol, however meticulous, are substitutes for developing a familiarity with what is actually going on in the sphere of life under study" (as quoted in Ball, 2004, p.5).

Standpoint theorists - defined as those who had previously been marginalized in the research process for reasons such as gender, race, disability, or sexuality - were the first to turn a critical eye toward the field of sociology itself (Ball, 2004). Feminist sociologists, for example, recognized the absence of women practicing sociology, and criticized the field for the absence of attention given to gender as a viable research topic. Feminists were also critical of positivist methodologies, and instead brought attention to the researcher's subjectivity as well as the subjectivity of those being researched. As one example of standpoint theorists, feminists theorists have researched gender stereotyping in schools, the reproduction of masculine and feminine identities, and the role of patriarchy in women's oppression. Early feminist theories, however, were criticized for failing to acknowledge the diversity of women's experience. "'Woman', it is argued, frequently stands for white, middle-class, heterosexual females" (Ball, 2004, p.7).

Postmodern Theory

Postmodernism is a theoretical approach that has left few academic disciplines untouched, and more than other theoretical approaches has created a great deal of controversy. Ball (2004) writes, "the postmodern or linguistic turn can be seen, in typical paradoxical fashion, both as an invigoration of, and threat to, the sociology of education, or rather to modernist social science generally" (p. 8). In general, postmodernists believe that all ideas are socially and politically situated, and thus reject narratives or explanations that claim dominance over other narratives. They also question one of the foundations of Western thought - the notion of progress and growth through knowledge - and thereby question one of the foundations of the sociology of education, which has always considered itself a redemptive discipline (Ball, 2004). As the field moves forward, Apple (1996) and other sociologists are calling for an integration of the disparate theoretical approaches, by 'simultaneously thinking about the specificity of different practices and the forms of articulated unity they constitute' (as quoted in Ball, 2004, p. 9).

Topics of Study

Educational Sociologists not only study education from a variety of theoretical and methodological angles, they also ask a wide range of questions. The following section will highlight some of the core topics - social class, race, and gender - but is in no way meant to be a comprehensive representation of the field. The questions below demonstrate the diversity of topics addressed, and begin to reveal the breadth of the field:

• What is the relationship between academic achievement and social class?

• What functions do schools serve?

• Why do girls take fewer math and science courses than boys?

• Are achievement tests biased against students of different ethnicities?

• Is ability grouping an effective teaching practice?

• Who should decide what is taught?

Social Class

Many believe that schools are vehicles of social mobility, and that earning an education can help a student move from a lower social class to a higher one. Educational sociologists have challenged this notion repeatedly, but the classic 1979 study by Jencks is one of the most often cited. In his conclusion, Jencks writes "The evidence suggests that equalizing educational opportunity would do very little to make adults more equal" (as quoted in Ballantine, 1997). Jencks argued that family background and attitudes toward education were more significant determinants of achievement than the school itself.

Even with equal educational opportunity, Jencks showed that a more egalitarian society was not likely to result. Others have shown that the social structure is perpetuated because equal opportunity itself is rare. For example, the common practice of tracking or grouping students according to ability, often disadvantages students of a particular race or socioeconomic status. Studies have also shown that student experience in different tracks is significantly different, with greater disruptions in lower-track classrooms, and therefore different student motivations and self-concepts. "Of the three major ways in which reproduction theorists argue that classes are reproduced (public versus private schooling, socioeconomic class composition of school communities, and ability grouping of students), research shows tracking to be the most important mechanism in the reproduction process (Ballantine, 1997, p. 72).

Houtte, Demanet, and Stevens (2013) studied teachers' perceptions and expectations for tracked students. Analyzing data for 6,545 students in 46 Flemish secondary schools with self-reported student measures and teacher evaluations of students, the study showed that teachers perceive lower track students as less able and less diligent in doing homework because of those students’ social and cognitive characteristics and anti-school behavior. Accounting for the latter, the authors wrote, teachers even evaluate lower track students as putting forth slightly more effort.

Educational sociologists are not only interested in what happens in formal learning environments, such as schools, but also recognize the importance of learning that occurs informally, in everyday life situations. Indeed, as Jencks (1979) discovered, variables outside school - such as family background -influence a student's chance of success as much, if not more than what occurs within the school. Research in this area has documented the relationship between student achievement and the social class of the family, parenting styles, number and birth order of children, parental involvement in education, and parental aspirations for children. Bourdieu (1970) coined the term 'cultural capital' to represent the knowledge and skills parents pass onto children - knowledge and skills which give students power and status.

Gender

The study of gender in education - in many disciplines, in fact - was largely absent until the feminist theorists brought it to the fore in the 1970s and 80s. Many believed, and continue to believe, that the educational system serves men and women equally, and that "if women want to get ahead, all they have to do is work hard like anyone else who 'makes it' in society" (Ballantine, 1997, p. 85). Educational sociologists have called this belief into question.

Many sociologists focus on the ways in which boys and girls are socialized into sex-appropriate roles. By investigating children's toys, textbooks, and gender-stereotypes, sociologists demonstrate the many ways in which boys and girls, but especially girls, are limited by the roles ascribed to them. Recent studies of textbooks, for example, shows that math problems are often accompanied by pictures of girls cooking, sewing, shopping, or jumping rope; such images send important messages to girls about appropriate behavior. Other studies have shown that teachers give more attention to boys and that girls become increasingly silent in the classroom as they move through adolescence (Ballantine, 1997).

One of the most persistent questions in the study of gender in education is the achievement gap between boys and girls in math and science. Part of the answer, sociologists argue, is that "girls have been systematically tracked toward traditional, sex-segregated jobs, and away from the areas of study that lead to high-paying jobs in science, technology, and engineering" (as quoted in Ballantine, 1997, p. 93). While girls' participation in math and science has increased into the early 2000s, differences in participation and achievement persist. Researchers have investigated teacher and parental expectations, attributional styles, and developmental pressures faced by girls - in terms of physical maturation and accompanying social pressures - as partial explanations for the persistent patterns.

Stromquist (2013) examined federal gender-equity legislation Title IX and found only “modest efforts to enforce the law, raising doubts about the commitment of the state to transform the social relations of gender” (Stromquist, 2013). The United States government’s framing of gender equality “exclusively in terms of non-discriminatory practices falls short of fostering changes in gender mentalities and identities in U.S. educational institutions - an outcome reflected in the persistent gender clustering of fields of study at the university level,” the author argued.

Race

The Coleman Report, a milestone study in the sociology of education published in 1966, was the first study to look at the opportunities and achievement of minority students compared to white students. Known for its sample - which included 5 percent of all schools and over half a million students - as well as its results, the study concluded that minority students scored lower on achievement tests than white students, most students attended segregated schools, the socio-economic status of the school and family impacted students' achievement levels while curriculum and facilities made little difference, and white students had greater access to educational resources than minority students (Ballantine, 1997). The results of Coleman's study have largely been replicated over the years, the mounting evidence used to support desegregation policies.

The impact of desegregation - on communities, student achievement, and race relations - has been the subject of numerous studies in the social sciences. In general, studies have found that minority student self-concept and self-esteem suffers in integrated school settings, but that academic achievement typically improves. Thus, "black students in desegregated schools, especially males, have a higher likelihood of attending college and completing more years of schooling than those from segregated schools" (Ballantine, 1997, p. 106). Attempts at desegregation have led to an unforeseen phenomenon known as 'white flight' - the departure of white, middle-class families from cities to avoid school integration. School districts and courts have responded to racial imbalances differently and desegregation - first mandated by the Supreme Court in 1954 in the case Brown v. Board of Education - remains an unfulfilled mission.

As the demographic make-up of the United States changes - in particular, as the Hispanic population becomes the predominant minority - attention will shift to the educational experience of different sub-populations. Already, a great deal of research attention has been given to the topic of bi-lingual education, and whether it's best to instruct students in their native language or English. Some believe learning English early is necessary for later school success, while others argue that requiring students to learn English makes it more difficult for them to learn in general, in addition to devaluing their culture (Ballantine, 1997).

Conclusion

According to Torres and Mitchell (1998), the developing field of the sociology of education can be defined by two emerging trends: the introduction of methodologies that vary significantly from empiricism and positivism, and the dichotomy between modernism and postmodernism. As the field moves forward, some predict integrated analyses of race, class, and gender will become more prominent, as scholars attempt to negotiate the careful balance between 'grand narratives' and the multiplicity of experience, power, and knowledge. Torres and Mitchell (1998) conclude,

"Indeed, what the new scholarship of class, race, and gender…tells us is that oppression, domination, and discrimination in schools and societies have not disappeared or gone away. If anything, oppression, discrimination, and domination have increased…What this scholarship for social empowerment also tells us is that there is still enough democratic energy and utopian optimism to figure out that, in the long haul, fighting for a system of public education of good quality is a good fight for the good life of children and, by implication, for all of society (p. 15).

Terms & Concepts

Conflict Theory: A theoretical approach to the study of sociology based largely on the writings of Max Weber and Karl Marx. Conflict theorists believe societies are comprised of two groups - the 'haves' and the 'have nots' - who are in a constant state of struggle against one another. Change is inevitable and happens quickly.

Durkheim, Emile: Known as 'the father of sociology,' Durkheim was a turn-of-the-century professor of pedagogy in France. He was one of the first to apply sociology to the study of education, and was largely interested in understanding how societies perpetuate themselves.

Interaction Theory: A theoretical approach to the study of sociology that focuses on micro-level interactions between individuals or groups of people. As a social-psychological approach, interactionists believe people are guided by social norms, but also recognize individual differences based on race, class, gender, and experience.

Positivism: An empirical, quantitative approach to the study of the social sciences modeled after the methodological approach used in the natural sciences. Positivism helped educational sociology gain respect as a discipline in the 1950s, but has been challenged more recently by qualitative, postmodern methodologies.

Postmodernism: A theoretical movement that argues all ideas are socially and politically situated. Postmodernists question the purpose of research itself, especially in relation to notions of progress and improvement. Postmodernism has created rifts in academia; how the conflicts will be resolved remains to be seen.

Sociology: Sociology is the study of people in groups, or more specifically, the study of human societies and social interaction. Sociologists study the structures of society - such as family, religion, education, and the economy - and the processes that bring the structures alive.

Structural - Functionalism: One of the earliest theoretical approaches to the study of sociology developed, in large part, by Emile Durkheim. Functionalists believe society is comprised of different parts, all of which work together to create an integrated whole. Functionalists helped explain how societies are perpetuated, but the theory fell short in accommodating notions of conflict and change.

Qualitative Research: A methodological approach distinguished from positivism, or quantitative methodologies. Largely an outgrowth of the development of feminist theories, qualitative methodologies question the assumption of objectivity, and believe the subjectivity of the individual(s) conducting the research, as well as those being researched, should be acknowledged. Qualitative methodologists believe researchers should spend time immersed in the environment they are trying to understand.

Bibliography

Apple, M. (1996). Power, meaning, and identity: Critical sociology of education in the United States. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 17, 125-44. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9608071762&site=ehost-live

Apple, M. (1993). Official knowledge. New York, NY: Routledge.

Apple, M.W. (2013). Between traditions: Stephen Ball and the critical sociology of education. London Review of Education, 11, 206–217. Retrieved December 8, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91899996&site=ehost-live

Ball, S. J. (Ed.). (2004). The RoutledgeFalmer reader in sociology of education. London, England: RoutledgeFalmer.

Ballantine, J.H. (1997). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Boocock, S.S. (Ed.). (1985). Sociology of education: An introduction. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc.

Bourdieu, P., and Passerson, J.C. (1977). Reproduction in education, society, and culture. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist American: Education and contradictions of economic life. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Demain, J. (Ed.). (2001). Sociology of education today. New York City, NY: Palgrave Publishers.

Giroux, H. A. (1994). Educational reform and the politics of teacher empowerment. In J. Kretovics & E. J. Nussel (Eds.), Transforming Urban Education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Houtte, M., Demanet, J., & Stevens, P. (2013). Curriculum tracking and teacher evaluations of individual students: selection, adjustment or labeling? Social Psychology of Education, 16, 329-352. Retrieved December 8, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90065333&site=ehost-live

Stromquist, N.P. (2013). Education policies for gender equity: Probing into state responses. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 21, 1-28. Retrieved December 8, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90024100&site=ehost-live

Torres, C. A., & Mitchell, T. R. (Eds.). (1998). Sociology of education: Emerging perspectives. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Willis, P. (1979). Learning to labor: How working class kids get working class jobs. Hampshire, England: Saxon House.

Suggested Reading

Apple, M. (2006). How class works in education. Educational Policy, 20, 455-462.

Bills, D.B. (2004). The sociology of education and work. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Dillabough, J. (2003). Gender, education, and society: The limits and possibilities of feminist reproduction theory. Sociology of Education, 76, 376-379. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=11499209&site=ehost-live

Lingard, B., Taylor, S., & Rawolle, S. (2005). Bourdieu and the study of educational policy: An introduction. Journal of Educational Policy, 20, 663-669. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18622077&site=ehost-live

Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (2003). Schooling in capitalist American twenty-five years later. Sociological Forum, 18, 343-349. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=10363449&site=ehost-live

Viadero, D. (2006). Race report's influence felt 40 years later. Education Week, 25, 1-24. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21346710&site=ehost-live

Wong, K., & Nicotera, A.C. (2004). Brown v. Board of Education and the Coleman Report: Social science research and the debate on educational equity. Peabody Journal of Education, 79, 122-135. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=12732231&site=ehost-live