Structuration theory

Structuration theory is a sociological model of human social structures that was developed in the late twentieth century by British sociologist Anthony Giddens. Giddens’ work reimagined the relationship between the sociological concepts of agency vs. structure. In this context, agency refers to the actions taken by individuals of their own free will. Structure refers to the complex network of forces, institutions, and norms within society that influence individuals’ thought processes and behaviors. Sociologists once viewed the two entities as diametrically opposed to one another. However, in 1984, Giddens developed his structuration theory stating that agency and structure are interconnected elements, each having an effect on the other.

Background

Sociology is the scientific study of human societies and the interactions of individuals and groups within those societies. The field first developed as an organized science in the nineteenth century. In general, sociology can be divided into two very broad levels of study: microsociology and macrosociology. Microsociology involves the study of societies on the smaller scale, such as the daily interactions between individuals or the dynamics taking place within a group. Macrosociology studies society on the larger scale, examining widespread social trends and patterns.

Most early sociologists focused on the macro aspects of the science, such as studying the profound shift from agricultural-based to industrial societies in the nineteenth century. These scientists examined societies as a whole to identify elements that defined those societies and held them together. In the early twentieth century, some sociologists began looking at the interactions between elements on a smaller scale within the overall society. They theorized that it was the actions taken by individuals and groups on a face-to-face level that created the societal dynamic observed in macrosociology.

Overview

The concept of social structure refers to the overall pattern that emerges within a society. On the macro level, social structure is affected by the hierarchies, institutions, and organized relationships within the larger realm of society. Hierarchies can include such factors as social class, while institutions can be elements such as religion. At the micro level, social structure can be influenced by the accepted norms of behavior practiced by individuals. Sociologists define agency as individuals’ ability to make choices of their own free will, independent of the wider influence of society. Some sociologists illustrate this concept by comparing people’s actions in a wider social setting to being on stage in a play. The actors go about their daily lives by playing a role meant to be viewed by an “audience” consisting of society as a whole. However, when people leave the stage and retreat behind the scenes, they can adopt a private persona and cast off the role they play for society.

Many sociologists viewed the relationship between social structure and agency as incompatible and fundamentally opposite one another. The microsociological influences individuals had on social structure were believed to originate from their face-to-face interactions with each other—the role people played while “on stage” in society as a whole. A person’s ability to exercise free will could be limited by the restraints imposed by social structure, but otherwise, the two concepts were considered separate.

In the 1970s and 1980s, sociologist Anthony Giddens began to take a new look at the relationship between structure and agency. Giddens, who was born in London in 1938, was noted for bringing an interdisciplinary approach to the study of sociology, incorporating elements of psychology, philosophy, history, linguistics, and economics into his work. In 1984, he published the book The Constitution of Society, in which he proposed that social structure and agency need not be viewed though separate lenses, but the two concepts were linked to one another.

His conclusion, which he called the structuration theory, did not consider either concept to be more important than the other. Instead, both structure and agency were seen as two sides of the same coin, an idea he referred to as a duality of structure. Giddens saw social structure as being the “rules and resources” created by the constant evolution of social processes. He defined agency as what individuals were capable of achieving of their own free will, not what they intended to achieve.

According to Giddens, individuals can take social actions or interact with others based on the social structures that exist during a specific time and place. Individuals’ actions are drawn from their knowledge formed from their immersion in these social structures. Giddens believes people have a wide variety of knowledge from which to draw from, including a collective memory shared with other members of their society.

While Giddens believes that individual actions are indelibly shaped by the social structure in which they have built their experiences, people are also capable of moving in new directions. A social structure may provide a person with a template for action, but if that action or interaction results in a new, more positive outcome, it could inspire a change in the social structure. In this way, social structure influences and guides a person’s agency; however, in the course of taking action, a person’s agency can also alter the structure of society as a whole.

Giddens’ structuration theory places the focus of sociological emphasis on social practices that involve both individual decisions and shared social structures. These can include elements such as childrearing, voting, discipline and punishment, and eating habits. Since its publication, the structuration theory has become a mainstay in the study of modern sociology. However, it is not universally accepted and has its share of detractors. Among the more common criticisms levied against the theory are that Giddens was too vague when he defined social structure and agency and did not take into account the role of technology in modern society.

Bibliography

Bryant, Christopher, and David Jary, editors. Giddens’ Theory of Structuration: A Critical Appreciation. Routledge, 2014.

“Cheat Sheet on Structuration Theory.” IT for Change, itforchange.net/mavc/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Handout-3-Cheat-Sheet-on-Structuration-Theory-.pdf. Accessed 26 Dec. 2019.

Cole, Nicki Lisa. “How Sociologists Define Human Agency.” ThoughtCo., 22 Jan. 2019, www.thoughtco.com/agency-definition-3026036. Accessed 26 Dec. 2019.

Giddens, Anthony. The Constitution of Society. 1984. Polity Press, 2007.

Haslett, Beth Bonniwell. “Structuration Theory.” Wiley Online Library, 1 Dec. 2015, onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118540190.wbeic013. Accessed 26 Dec. 2019.

“Levels of Analysis: Micro and Macro.” LibreTexts, 6 Oct. 2019, socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Sociology/Book%3A‗Sociology‗(Boundless)/1%3A‗Sociology/1.4%3A‗The‗Sociological‗Approach/1.4B%3A‗Levels‗of‗Analysis%3A‗Micro‗and‗Macro. Accessed 26 Dec. 2019.

“Structuration.” Routledge, 2016, routledgesoc.com/category/profile-tags/structuration. Accessed 26 Dec. 2019.

“Structuration Theory of Anthony Giddens.” University of Regina, 8 Mar. 2006, uregina.ca/~gingrich/319m606.htm. Accessed 26 Dec. 2019.