Baseball

Baseball is one of the most popular and iconic team sports in the world. As a primary modern variant of a bat-and-ball sport, gameplay involves two teams taking turns on offense (known as batting or hitting) and defense (fielding). On offense, one player at a time tries to hit a ball thrown by the opposing team and then run to "safe" parts of the field known as bases. A point (called a "run") is scored when a runner safely advances around all four bases. The defensive team attempts to stop batters from reaching base and scoring runs by controlling the ball in particular ways that result in an "out," forcing a batter or runner to leave the field of play. After three outs, the two teams switch positions; a cycle in which each team has a turn batting and fielding is called an "inning." Unlike many sports, baseball does not have a game clock, and innings can last indefinitely. The team with the most runs after a set number of innings (typically nine) wins; ties are usually resolved by playing extra innings.

Since its development in the United States in the mid- to late nineteenth century, baseball has become known as "America’s national pastime" and grown into one of the most popular sports worldwide. The best known of its professional-level manifestations is Major League Baseball (MLB), which consists of teams based in the United States and Canada. There are also numerous minor-league teams throughout North America, many of which operate under the MLB umbrella and are affiliated with major-league teams. These "farm teams", which include levels such as A, AA, and AAA, enable young players to develop their skills and gradually move upward to the majors. Baseball is also highly popular in much of Latin America and East Asia, in particular, with many countries supporting high-level professional leagues of their own as well as developmental organizations.

In its various forms, baseball is a multibillion-dollar industry, attracting millions of fans to ballparks around the world. It is deeply engrained in the popular culture in the United States and other countries where it enjoys a significant following, and has often been featured in literature, films, and other media. Over the years, the sport has faced major scandals—including around gambling, performance-enhancing-drugs, and labor relations—as well as other controversies and concerns such as the rising cost of attending a major-league game and struggles to appeal to new generations of fans. Yet despite such challenges, baseball continues to enjoy a strong, loyal following in the United States and around the world.

Origins and History

The story of baseball’s origin is based on a mix of fact and myth. Popular legend has it that the sport was invented by a future Civil War hero, Abner Doubleday, in 1839. According to that story, Doubleday—a native of Cooperstown, New York—invented the sport on his own. Later, when Doubleday became an officer for the Union during the Civil War, his sport became a popular activity among the soldiers. This story has since been debunked, as Doubleday was at West Point, not Cooperstown, at the time he is alleged to have invented the game. Historians also believe that the Civil War baseball connection was based on the fact that Doubleday ordered baseball bats and equipment for his men during rest periods.

Historians and other experts now concur that baseball—which may have been played in the United States as far back as the early eighteenth century—evolved from two English ball-and-bat games: rounders and cricket. In fact, many historians believe that all three of those games, as well as other ball-and-bat variations, derived from a common ancestor called seker-hemat, which was played by ancient Egyptians as far back as 2,500 BCE. Still, rules of the modern game of baseball are believed to have been introduced in the years prior to the Civil War, likely by Alexander Cartwright, and the game’s popularity during that war is well-documented. A number of versions of the game (different cities had their own rules) continued through the latter nineteenth century. Baseball was primarily a recreational activity until gamblers took an interest in it.

As gambling money was increasingly invested in baseball, the sport grew in size and popularity. Although the gambling element would persist throughout its history (notably in the infamous 1919 “Black Sox” scandal), the game grew into a major, legitimate commercial enterprise. Large ballparks filled with fans that came to see larger-than-life players such as Babe Ruth, Ty Cobb, and Ted Williams. As the sport was increasingly recognized as the "Great American Pastime," a major development came in 1947 when Jackie Robinson broke the MLB’s color barrier. Previously, Black players were confined to the separate Negro Leagues. (Only in December 2020 were the Negro Leagues formally recognized as major-league level; their statistics were officially incorporated into the MLB record books in 2024.)

The legacy of money and prestige wrapped up in professional baseball did give rise to many conflicts and scandals over the decades. Labor issues proved to be an ongoing challenge. The MLB was given an exemption to federal antitrust laws, so teams originally held much power over individual players under a contract system known as the reserve clause. After St. Louis Cardinals player Curt Flood rejected the team's attempt to trade him in 1969, the lawsuit Flood v. Kuhn reached the US Supreme Court in 1972, the same year a player's strike was held. In 1975 the reserve clause was abolished and the new system of free agency adopted, in which players gain the right to sign with any team after a certain period. This radically reshaped MLB baseball on and off the field, as the value of player contracts steadily increased. Athletes continued to push for greater autonomy through their powerful labor union and collective bargaining agreements. Further player strikes were held in 1981 and 1994–95, while team owners initiated a lockout in 2021.

Meanwhile, performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) became the other main source of tensions in baseball. Beginning in the late 1990s and escalating in the early twenty-first century, MLB was embroiled in several scandals over banned substances, particularly anabolic steroids. Home run record-holders Sammy Sosa, Mark McGwire, and Barry Bonds were all linked to performance-enhancing drugs. Many observers suggested MLB officials had intentionally overlooked a widespread problem due to the popularity of increased scoring and record-setting performances. In 2006, MLB Commissioner Bud Selig commissioned the Mitchell Report to investigate the use of in MLB and the effectiveness of MLB's drug policy. The report concluded that officials and players all shared "to some extent in the responsibility for the steroid era."

Later superstar players such as Alex Rodriguez faced suspensions for involvement with banned substances. In January 2013, in-season random human growth hormone (HGH) testing and a new test for testosterone were instituted in MLB, along with a 50-game suspension for testing positive once, a 100-game suspension for testing positive twice, and a lifetime suspension for testing positive a third time. Under the MLB's original steroid testing policy (2002 to 2005), players were tested randomly at least once annually with a ten-game suspension for a first positive test and ranging up to a one-year suspension for testing positive four times.

By the 2020s public concerns over steroids had faded somewhat, but other cheating scandals continued to arise. These included incidents involving sign-stealing and doctoring of baseballs by pitchers. Many commentators also claimed that the sport was losing fans, especially among younger generations, due to the slow pace of play. Some blamed increasingly lengthy game times on teams' heightened attention to advanced statistics, and the MLB and other leagues experimented with rule changes designed to speed up the game. Yet despite such challenges, baseball remained a cultural cornerstone in the United States and many other countries.

Rules and Regulations

There are a number of variations in rules governing different baseball leagues. For example, Japanese professional baseball allows for games to end in a tie, whereas MLB games must go through extra innings until the game is won. Most of the differences between professional baseball leagues, however, are philosophical rather than regulatory, as the game is typically played in line with MLB rules and regulations.

Teams as they appear on the field at the beginning of the game consist of nine position players: pitcher, catcher, first baseman, second baseman, third baseman, shortstop, left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. Teams will also have players standing by to make substitutions, such as relief pitchers, pinch hitters, and pinch runners. Once a player is removed for a substitute, however, that player cannot return to the field. Overall, a team will have forty players on its roster, though only twenty-five on its active major-league team. If, during the course of a season, a player is injured, they may be placed on the “injured list” and another player called up. If a player underperforms, they can usually be sent to the minor leagues and replaced with another player.

An at-bat player may advance to first base or beyond in a number of ways, including on a hit, a walk (the pitcher throws four pitches judged outside the strike zone), or when hit by a pitch. They may also reach if they swing at a third-strike pitch and the catcher drops the ball and fails to throw it to the player covering first base before the hitter reaches first base. Once on base, a runner may advance by stealing the next base (running while the pitcher is throwing the ball) or when the ball is hit and touches the ground before being caught. A runner may also “tag up” when a hit ball is caught in the air and the hitter is out. If the ball is caught in the outfield, for example, a runner, with a foot on the base, may run to the next base after the out is issued. If a runner is tagged with the ball when not touching a base, they are ruled out.

Most baseball games consist of nine innings, in each of which both teams have an opportunity to hit and field. After three outs for both teams, the inning shifts. Outs are obtained through strikeouts, tag outs, fly outs, and force outs, when a player must advance to the next base but a defending player with the ball touches the base first. A player may also be called out if the umpire determines a runner either ran out of the baseline or interfered with the fielder’s ability to record an out. In a game, the visiting team hits first. If there is no winner at the end of nine innings, the game goes into extra innings, until the game is decided.

In the MLB, there are two leagues: the American League (AL) and National League (NL). For decades, the only major rule difference between the two leagues involved the use of a “designated hitter,” or a player who hits in place of another player (usually the pitcher). In 1973, AL teams began using a designated hitter as part of efforts to encourage more offensive production. The older NL continued to require pitchers to bat like other players. When AL and NL teams played one another—whether during the season (known as “interleague” play) or during the World Series—the designated-hitter rule applied only when the AL team was the home team. However, in 2022 the NL adopted the designated hitter as well. This left the Central League of Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) as the only prominent baseball league where pitchers were still required to hit.

Strategy and Tactics

Baseball is a game of strategy. Pitchers, who are typically expected to have a strong repertoire of different pitches, must work with their catchers to ensure that they throw the right pitch. Hitters, meanwhile, must assess the field and determine where to hit the ball. Once on base, runners must carefully monitor the defense for opportunities to advance. When the ball is in play, position players must often choose where to send the ball to best minimize offensive progress.

Perhaps the most important players in a baseball game are the pitchers. How a pitcher performs often determines the game’s outcome. Pitchers must study their opponent before the game, taking into account which players swing at which pitches; modern-day pitchers rely on video footage of hitters’ past performances and tendencies as well as advanced statistical analysis to aid in this aspect of the game. Pitchers must also plan their game, mixing an effective combination of pitches in order to keep the batters guessing.

The catcher is also important in this arena, as they can help call the pitches based on what they know about the opponent. The pitcher and the catcher—colloquially known as the “battery”—have a symbiotic relationship. Pitchers often rely on catchers to not only help choose pitches but also to frame borderline pitches as strikes, stop wayward pitches from escaping, and more. Catchers must also watch the bases for opposing players attempting to steal. If a runner looks like they are about to steal, the catcher must signal to the pitcher so that the pitcher can try to force the runner to return to base.

Another key person in a baseball game is the manager. The manager, along with the coaches, is responsible for gauging player performance. Managers make pitching and player changes based on the on-field situation. They must also communicate with players on the field, signaling when to make adjustment in position as well as when to steal or to bunt, or when to advance if the ball is in play. Many critical games have been determined not only by player performance but also by manager competency.

Professional Leagues and Series: MLB Playoffs and World Series

Professional baseball began with the formation of the Cincinnati Red Stockings in 1869. This was followed by the establishment of the National League (NL) in 1876 and its rival the American Association (1882–91), which later became the American League (AL) in 1901. The NL and AL merged in 1903 to form Major League Baseball (MLB), though they remained legally separate entities until 2000. The MLB was initially governed by the National Association of Base Ball Players (NABBP). Since 1920, it has been led by the Commissioner of Baseball.

The MLB is the world's premier baseball league, with top players from around the globe. While the league's structure has varied over the decades, entering the 2020s the AL and NL each included fifteen teams, divided into East, West, and Central Divisions. Teams play 162 regular-season games, with six teams in each league advancing to the postseason: the three division winners and three wild cards with the best records among remaining teams. First come the Wild Card games, which determines the Division Series matchups. The Division Series is followed by the League Championship Series, which features the winners of the Division Series. The Division Series is a best-of-five format (the first team to win three games), while the League Championship Series is the best of seven. The playoffs culminate in the World Series, a best-of-seven championship series between the winning NL and AL teams.

MLB regular season play lasts for about seven months. Prior to the start of the regular season, teams undergo two months of spring training, wherein players are physically conditioned and compete for roster spots. Spring training also features exhibition games between teams at ballparks in either Florida (the “Grapefruit League”) or Arizona (the “Cactus League”), giving managers the chance to determine the best players to put on the roster. In late March and early April, the official season begins, extending through September. Thereafter, the MLB playoffs begin, culminating in the World Series. The MLB All-Star Game is held mid-season, with select players from each league facing off for one exhibition game.

Minor and Non-US Leagues

MLB is also in charge of Minor League Baseball (MiLB), the network of affiliated teams that help prepare players for the major leagues. There are various minor league levels, from rookie leagues for the most inexperienced players to A, AA, and AAA for increasingly seasoned players. Major-league veterans may also occasionally play in the minor leagues while rehabilitating from injury or if their performance has declined. Most minor-league conferences play their own playoffs and championships, typically played from the end of August through the end of September. A few minors-level teams are independent, or not affiliated with MiLB. Players on such teams are not committed to and cannot be traded by MLB teams, though they may be signed by an MLB club if they show promise.

In addition, there are professional baseball leagues in countries outside of North America. Among these leagues are Nippon Professional Baseball (Japan) and the Australian Baseball League.

There are also many non-professional baseball leagues. In the United States, college sports organizations such as the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) oversee many teams and competitions that often serve as a pipeline for the MiLB and MLB. High schools and other educational institutions often have baseball teams that compete locally, regionally, and even nationally. Recreational programs such as Little League Baseball also provide athletic experience for millions of children.

The IBAF and the World Baseball Classic

Most of the established professional baseball leagues in the world (MLB included) are members of the International Baseball Federation (IBAF). The IBAF helps promulgate common regulations and rules as well as spread information about baseball throughout the globe. It took on additional strength after baseball was admitted into the Olympics in 1992. In 2012 baseball and softball were officially dropped from the Olympics, though they were revived for the 2020 Games. Among the IBAF’s many events is the World Baseball Classic (WBC). This tournament was conceived of in 2004 and first played in 2006.

Popularity

Baseball’s popularity is widespread and well-established, as demonstrated by its prominence in global sports culture and the number of professional and amateur leagues around the world. The MLB in particular continues to generate major media coverage, and fan attendance remains high. Other international leagues show similar fan support, with the sport attracting large numbers of spectators in Japan, China, South Korea, Taiwan, and most of Latin America in particular.

However, in the twenty-first century, observers often raised concerns that baseball was losing popularity in the United States, especially compared to the steady rise of other sports such as football. The high price of tickets for MLB games was frequently cited as having a negative impact on fan engagement and growth. Venues such as Boston’s Fenway Park, Chicago’s Wrigley Field, and New York’s Yankee Stadium were among the most expensive venues at which to watch a game in the early twenty-first century. Experts also pointed to the strong secondary market for ticket sales created by websites such as StubHub. The recession of the late 2000s and continued economic stagnation in the 2010s also contributed to a significant downturn in fan attendance for some clubs. Still, most major- and minor-league baseball venues continued to see strong attendance overall.

Bibliography

Arango, Tim. “Myth of Baseball’s Creation Endures, with a Prominent Fan.” The New York Times, 12 Nov. 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/11/13/sports/baseball/13doubleday.html. Accessed 23 July 2024.

The Baseball Encyclopedia: The Complete and Definitive Record of Major League Baseball. 10th ed. Macmillan, 1996.

"Baseball for Beginners." Baseball & the Tenth Inning, PBS, www.pbs.org/kenburns/baseball/baseball-for-beginners. Accessed 23 July 2024.

Gillette, Gary, Pete Palmer, and Peter Gammons. The ESPN Baseball Encyclopedia. 5th ed. Sterling, 2008.

James, Bill. The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract. Free, 2003.

“MLB Official Information.” MLB.com, www.mlb.com/official-information. Accessed 23 July 2024.

Nathanson, Mitchell. A People’s History of Baseball. U of Illinois P, 2012.

National Baseball Hall of Fame, baseballhall.org/. Accessed 23 July 2024.

Rader, Benjamin G. Baseball: A History of America’s Game. 3rd ed. U of Illinois P, 2008.

"Sports Industry: A Research Guide: Baseball." Library of Congress, guides.loc.gov/sports-industry/baseball. Accessed 23 July 2024.

Thorn, John. Baseball in the Garden of Eden: The Secret History of the Early Game. Simon, 2011.