Neoclassicism (arts)

Neoclassicism emerged in Europe in the mid-eighteenth century as a societal shift away from the exuberance of the Renaissance period in favor of order and restraint. The principles of neoclassicism dominated intellectual thought, fine arts, and politics throughout Europe and the New World for more than a century. Everything from art and architecture to society and government during this period was heavily influenced by the perceived purity and wisdom of ancient Greece and Rome. Classical qualities were believed to exemplify universal truths about the world and how humanity should conduct itself within it. As such, classical ethics and forms served as the guiding principles and stylistic rules of the day. Tradition, moderation, reason, and consensus trumped innovation, excess, idealism, and individuality under the neoclassical worldview.

Background

Two major forces contributed to the rise of neoclassicism: reaction against the extravagant styles and indulgent behaviors of the Renaissance, and renewed interest in antiquities stemming from the then-recent discoveries and early excavations of the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The sites, which had been buried by a tremendous eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, yielded well-preserved cultural artifacts and historical insight into ancient life that showcased the endurance of classical virtues. The mounting consensus was that the same virtues could be revived as an alternative to the perceived moral decline of the current society.

Wealthy Europeans were already embracing the Grand Tour as a means to experience firsthand the merits of the ancients through their legacy of art and architecture. Real and reproduced antiquities, from the works of Homer to carefully copied masterworks of art, were in high demand. Economical printing processes and expanding museum collections helped disseminate neoclassical ideas and images to the masses in both Europe and America.

Neoclassicists sought to use the past as a guide for the present based on the assumption that human nature was unchanging, regardless of the time period or geography. To them, uniqueness was less likely to be truth than was the consensus of society, which had been proven through time and tradition. Neoclassical artists, therefore, emphasized common human characteristics over individuality, and writers of the age conveyed general human truths rather than expressing thoughtful introspections or divergent perspectives. In all forms of artistic expression, intellect and reason were valued much more highly than emotion. The same sentiment pervaded all aspects of life during the neoclassical age, with conservatism and harmony serving as the pillars of society.

Impact

Neoclassicism was a renewed interest in classical forms and ideas that pervaded European arts, politics, and intellectual thought in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Because the United States had close ties with Great Britain and France, neoclassical ideals swiftly made their way across the Atlantic and began to shape US society as well.

By the mid–nineteenth century, the classics were established sources of authority and served as common reference points among members of all echelons of European and US society. Neoclassicism had become the central theme behind humanistic learning, cultural exchange, and political thought. Ancient Greek and Roman legends portrayed neoclassical aspirations that are believed to have informed and influenced the founders and early leaders of the United States of America. The government of the new republic was modeled on classical Greek and Roman principles of liberty, equality, and personal protections.

The Founding Fathers essentially borrowed and reworked classical Roman republicanism and civics to devise a modern republic rooted in reason, liberty, and self-government. The Greeks and Romans had already developed the principles of liberty, justice, rule of law, and due process. To the leaders of the new nation, ancient opponents of monarchy and aristocratic tyranny were heroes and role models. Roman models of law and jurisprudence were considered to be the pillars of thriving civilization. Neoclassicism, therefore, reflected the desire and efforts to link contemporary greatness and achievement with time-tested and legendary accomplishments of classical Greek and Roman society.

Neoclassicism emerged as a central theme in formal education and public symbolism throughout Europe and the United States, creating a common tender for cultural exchange and expression in the nineteenth century. Government buildings, universities, and museums were designed to resemble Greek temples characterized by clean lines and massive columns. The Washington Monument in the heart of the nation’s capital took the form of a colossal obelisk, a key symbol present throughout ancient Rome.

Artists on both sides of the Atlantic embraced neoclassicism for both aesthetic and political reasons, and the style flourished. Neoclassic artists adopted classical forms that portrayed or suggested knowledge acquisition, democratic values, moral virtue, and a refined appreciation of beauty. Works in the neoclassical style brought historic subject matter to life through formal, restrained composition and simple yet graceful lines that mimicked the works of ancient masters. Scenes and costumes depicted in neoclassical art usually remained contemporary with the artist’s time rather than being strict extrapolations of classical settings and dress. To neoclassicists, art should be organized and rational, with an emphasis on symmetry, proportion, unity, harmony, and grace as instruments for instruction rather than expression.

Neoclassicists preferred the essay, letter, satire, parody, fable, and rhymed couplet as the favored forms of literature and poetry. In theater, neoclassical ideals were portrayed most frequently in the guise of heroic drama, melodrama, sentimental comedy, and comedy of manners.

While neoclassicism looked to the ancient past as a how-to guide for achieving and portraying true and lasting greatness, it also left its own legacy in the history of modern politics, artistic expression, and philosophical perspectives.

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