Perspective (graphical)

Perspective is a technique that artists use to create the illusion of three dimensions in a two-dimensional space. Using perspective, artists can render the impression of depth and space on a flat surface. The two main types of perspective are linear, which depends on mathematical accuracy, and aerial (sometimes called atmospheric), which depends more on the use of color. Linear perspective is believed to have been discovered during the Renaissance, and artists have been depending on it since that time to create realistic images.

Brief History

The use of perspective in ancient art was relatively uncommon. For example, ancient Egyptian art was very stylized. Humans and animals in Egyptian works typically were depicted with their heads turned to the side. In scenes featuring more than one figure, figures of higher importance, such as pharaohs, often were portrayed much larger than figures of lower importance. Evidence suggests that the ancient Greeks and Romans may have discovered some aspects of perspective and used them in their paintings. The Greek painting Abduction of Persephone, which was found at a Macedonian burial site and dates to the fourth century BCE, makes use of shadows and angles to convey a sense of perspective.

In the twenty-first century, most people who hear the term perspective generally think of linear perspective. Historians generally believe that artists discovered linear perspective during the Renaissance in the early fifteenth century CE. The two people who most often receive credit for this discovery are architect Filippo Brunelleschi and artist/architect Leon Battista Alberti. Brunelleschi experimented with linear perspective in the early 1400s. First, he positioned himself with his back to a building. He then held up a mirror and studied the reflection of the building behind him. Next, using a board identical in size to the mirror, he recreated the mirror image as a painting in perspective. Friends who later viewed the painting were amazed by the accuracy of the depiction.

Linear perspective quickly caught on with other Renaissance artists. Between 1427 and 1428, artist Masaccio painted Trinity with the Virgin, Saint John the Evangelist, and Donors (sometimes just called Holy Trinity). Unlike Brunelleschi's painting, which has been lost, Masaccio's painting has survived. Many consider it the first painting to accurately convey three dimensions using linear perspective. Shortly thereafter, Alberti published his book De pictura (On Painting) in 1435. The book includes a discussion of linear perspective. In time, other Renaissance artists began to refine the basic ideas of linear perspective.

Artists' use of linear perspective has persisted into modern times; however, for a period in the twentieth century, Pablo Picasso and other Cubist artists moved way from linear perspective. Cubists portrayed their subjects from different angles at the same time. They fragmented their subjects into geometric shapes and abandoned realistic representation.

In the twenty-first century, linear perspective remains an important aspect of visual art. Painters, illustrators, and others continue to use linear perspective to create depth and dimension in their works. Graphic artists use linear perspective to compose digital art, such as posters and logos, and to produce other works, such as video games and animated films. Similarly, architects and engineers use linear perspective to develop and manipulate designs for buildings and other structures using special software.

Overview

The two main types of perspective are linear and aerial (or atmospheric). Linear perspective rests on mathematical principles and depends on an artist's ability to accurately represent a scene. A fundamental aspect of linear perspective is that objects closer to the viewer are larger than objects that are farther away. Linear perspective is based on the viewpoint of the artist and a number of lines, points, and angles.

Viewpoint refers to the point from which the artist views the scene. A "normal" viewpoint is generally considered the viewpoint of a standing adult. The viewpoint may be adjusted lower (viewed from below) or higher (viewed from above). Regardless of viewpoint, the horizon line establishes the farthest distance in the background of the work. The horizon line is also known as the eye-level line, as it is typically placed at eye level. Everything above the horizon line slopes downward toward this line. Everything below the horizon line slopes upward toward this line. Somewhere along the horizon line is a vanishing point. The vanishing point is the point in a work where all the parallel lines seem to converge and disappear. Lines drawn from the bottom of the work toward the vanishing point are called orthogonals. Together with the vanishing point and the horizon, orthogonals help establish the foreground of a work. Parallel lines that pass horizontally through the orthogonals are called transversals. Artists use transversals to help establish a scale for objects that are at a distance from them but are not quite as far away as the horizon line.

Linear perspective is subdivided into a few more types of perspective based on the number of vanishing points in a work. The most common types are as follows:

• One-point perspective – Works with one-point perspective have one vanishing point. An example would be a sketch of a road disappearing into the distance.
• Two-point perspective – Works with two-point perspective have two vanishing points. An example is a painting of a building as viewed from the building's corner. The vanishing points are on either side of the building. Another example is a drawing of a fork in the road, where two roads split and head off in different directions.
• Three-point perspective – Works with three-point perspective have three vanishing points. For example, a work that depicts a skyscraper as viewed from its corner (thus creating two vanishing points) and from the ground up (known as ant's-eye or worm's-eye view) or from the top down (known as bird's-eye view) has three-point perspective.
• Zero-point perspective – Works that use zero-point perspective have no vanishing points, but they still create the illusion of depth. Zero-point perspective is common in works featuring landscapes, where closer hills or valleys appear larger than those at a distance.

Like linear perspective, aerial perspective conveys three dimensions, but it is based more on the use of color than on mathematical accuracy. Aerial perspective considers how effects such as the scattering of light and the saturation of color change as distance increases. For example, the colors of objects at a distance tend to shift toward shades of blue and gray. Artists render these objects with fewer distinct details, causing them to almost blur together. Using these techniques, artists are able to create the illusion of depth with aerial perspective just as they are able to do so with linear perspective.

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