Feminist Theology

Feminist theology is a theological movement primarily within Christianity and Judaism that is intended to reexamine scriptural teachings on women and women's roles from a woman's perspective. Feminist theology attempts to counter arguments or practices that place women in inferior spiritual or moral positions. Feminist theologians work either from inside or outside traditional religious and denomination structures to bring justice, freedom, and equity to women and to reverse or stop practices that marginalize women. From inside traditional religious or denominational structures, feminist theology tends to be based on an active reading of scriptural texts through the lens of women's issues both from ancient and contemporary points of view. From within traditional religions or denominational lines, feminist theologians tend to emphasize abolishment of archaic, reactionary patriarchal views of religion and church in favor of more egalitarian views that emphasize equality between the genders.

Keywords Eisegesis; Exegesis; Feminism; Feminist Theology; Fundamentalism; Hermeneutics; Marginalization; Postmodernism; Theology

Sociology of Religion > Feminist Theology

Overview

Relevance & Reinterpretation

Change is a necessary part of growth, and societies and cultures grow through their adaptation to change. Therefore, to continue to be relevant to the current generation, the teachings and doctrines of any religion need to be reinterpreted so as to be relevant to the situation in which the current generation finds itself. Other might argue that the tenets of a religion are (sometimes literally) set in stone and speak for themselves without interpretation. More moderate theologians tend to argue that the basic tenets of a religion do not change, but that one needs to view them in greater historical context in order to understand how they are to be applied in more modern times. More liberal theologians look at the same historical and current cultural contexts and tend to throw out those traditional teachings that they find to be archaic.

Examples of these approaches can be seen in the headlines. The rift in the worldwide Anglican Communion over the ordination of gays and lesbians is just one example. Many in the Episcopal Church (the American branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion) believe that the Christian Bible should not only be reinterpreted to be relevant to contemporary society but also be actually reinterpreted using the beliefs and standards of the postmodern world. Therefore, they reject what others believe to be the biblical teachings on homosexuality and advocate for the ordination of gays and lesbians. This debate was brought to a head by the ordination of an openly gay priest to the bishopric. As a result, a number of Episcopal churches split from the American Episcopal Church and moved under the authority of the more traditional, conservative Anglican Church in Nigeria. The Episcopal Church later elected a woman as Primate (the American bishop who leads the national Episcopal Church). In response, some conservative bishops that did not believe in the ordination of women refused to speak to her. Arguments over who is right and who is wrong, whether or not the liberal American branch should split off from the greater Anglican Communion, and who gets to keep church property when an individual church decides to go a different way continue.

However, it is not just the Episcopal Church that has such issues of interpretation and reinterpretation of Scripture. The United Church of Christ is well-known for its reinterpretation of biblical teachings (in particular those relating to the role of women and gays), and the church disregards the parts of the Bible that it views as not relevant to today's society. On the other end of the spectrum, the Southern Baptist Convention and various fundamentalist churches argue that the statements in the Bible should stand as they are and — although made relevant — for the most part do not need to be interpreted in historical context. As a result, the Southern Baptist Convention has argued that the ordination of women is unbiblical and has gone so far in some cases as to demand that the ordination of women pastors be rescinded. Such arguments are not isolated cases; similar debates have occurred in the Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian denominations.

The Feminist Theology Movement

Standing against such arguments — particularly conservative views of the secondary role of women in the church — are feminist theologians. In general, there are two types of feminist theologians. The first of these comprises theologians who view traditional or mainstream religion from a woman's perspective. This form of the feminist theology movement is found primarily within Christianity and Judaism. The overarching goal of this type of feminist theologian is to reform traditional religious institutions along feminist lines. For most of these advocates, important topics include the ordination of women, new language about God, and greater denominational recognition of the needs and contributions of women. The second of these types of feminist theologians comprises those from other religious traditions such as goddess worship. Some proponents of feminist theology within this latter group have established their own sects devoted to the worship of female power such as fertility and imagination. Other proponents, however, are not involved in any sect or religious institution (Porterfield, 1987).

Feminist theology grew out of the broader feminist movement and concomitant consciousness-raising sessions of the 1960s and 1970s. In many ways, feminism in general was a movement to revitalize the culture at large. Feminist theology is an extension of the feminist movement that seeks to revitalize religion. As the feminist movement in secular culture began to demarginalize women and give them greater justice, freedom, and equity, some feminist thinkers turned their attention to parallel problems within the structures of religion and church. As with the feminist movement before it, feminist theology seeks to point out weaknesses and inequality in the status quo and to offer solutions to make practices and theology more equitable from a woman's point of view. The intent of feminist theology is to gain greater justice, freedom, and equity for women within religion and church. To this end, feminist theology seeks to remove patriarchal concepts that are related only to ancient culture, rather than the biblical author's intended message, from contemporary church and religious teaching and doctrine. Some examples of how this is done is through the use of gender neutral names for God, abolition of perceived archaic rules regarding the behavior and dress of women, and recognition of the spiritual and moral equity of women with men. One of the causes célèbres for equity is the ordination of women. Arguing from both the scriptural text and the example of ancient church practice, feminist theologians argue for the ordination of women and for equal roles within the ecclesiastical hierarchy (Porterfield, 1987).

One can be both a feminist and a theologian yet not be a feminist theologian. Several shared traits distinguish both types of feminist theologians from these other groups. First, feminist theologians have an appreciation of religion that distinguishes them from those feminists who reject religion either because it is irrelevant to their cause or because it is a hindrance to it. Although feminist theologians tend to agree with feminists in general that organized religion has historically oppressed, subjugated, or marginalized women, feminist theologians believe that religion can support and empower women. However, feminist theologians are distinct from theologians in general. As with other feminists, feminist theologians strongly criticize social structures that oppress or marginalize women and emphasize those that empower them. Equality and justice for women is frequently the lens through which feminist theologians read scriptural or other sacred texts. In addition, feminist theologians frequently emphasize women's bodies as sources of religious inspiration or moral concern and a need to take care of the earth and the natural environment.

In addition to these traits shared by all feminist theologians, there are other traits that differentiate between the two types of feminist theologians. Those who work outside established denominational or religious lines often create new religions based on their ideas which they perceive as being in opposition to those of established churches are religions. Frequently, these differences find expression in their understanding of the nature of God. Those feminist theologians working within established religious traditions such as Christianity and Judaism have as one of their objectives to correct misconceptions about the nature of God. Christian feminist theologians also emphasize the humanity of Jesus as well as his equality of treatment for women and his androgynous teachings of love.

Further Insights

Feminism & Religious Texts

Although the ordination of women is an important matter for feminist theologians, it is only the tip of the iceberg when it comes to theological debate about the role of women in the church. Feminist theology — particularly in Christianity and Judaism — is a theological movement that focuses on the reexamination of scriptural teachings on women and women's roles from a woman's perspective. Feminist theology attempts to counter arguments or practices that place women in inferior spiritual or moral positions. Feminist theology is the religious manifestation of feminism: an ideology that is opposed to gender stratification and male dominance. Feminist beliefs and concomitant actions are intended to help bring justice, fairness, and equity to all women and aid in the development of a society in which women and men are equal in all areas of life. Neither the Hebrew Bible nor the Christian New Testament was written from the point of view of women. In fact, it is highly unlikely that any of these sacred texts were written by women or had women's issues as concerns. Yet, some of these passages do deal with women's issues (e.g., dress and deportment, wifely duties, family life, social status). In general, liberal feminist theologians dismiss such instructions out of hand as cultural artifacts of ancient times. More moderate feminist theologians, on the other hand, attempt to understand the underlying meaning of such passages outside the confines of history and culture.

The Bible

Much of the debate revolves around biblical hermeneutics or the interpretation of Scripture. According to Ringe (1992), many people believe that an ultraconservative interpretation of the passages about women's roles in Scripture are blatant examples of eisegesis and do not fairly represent the true meaning of these passages. Taken out of context of the entire canon of Scripture, these passages can be used to marginalize women by relegating them to inferior roles not only in the church, but also in the home and in society at large. Often, these debates revolve around the translation of ancient texts and how to properly exegete them. For example, the Greek word adelphi (literally "brothers") is often translated by modern interpreters as "brothers and sisters" not only because it is more inclusive, but also because it was not the intention of the original authors to exclude women. The problem of translation is compounded when interpreters on both sides of an issue attempt to do an exegesis of a text based not on the words and meanings in the original language but on the translated words and concomitant meanings in a modern language that may not even have the same concepts. It must be remembered that every translation of a text is in itself an interpretation. For example, in Paul's letter to the Romans in the Christian New Testament, Paul sends his greetings to Phoebe, a diakonos of the church (Rom. 16:1). Many versions translate this term as "a servant of the church." However, everywhere else this word is used in the Christian New Testament, it is translated as "deacon" or "minister." Everywhere else this word is used in the Christian New Testament, it refers to a male. The English translation of the passage cannot be used in good conscience to marginalize women within the church when this is not the apparent meaning of the original text. Similarly, frequently the Greek word anthropos is translated as "men" in the Christian New Testament. However, this word actually is better translated as "human being," and is not the Greek word for "male" or "man" (aner).

From this exegetical viewpoint, there is much to be said for a feminist interpretation of Scripture. In fact, one of the primary texts used by feminist theologians is Galatians 3:28:

Even without being informed by the contemporary feminist movement, this passage can be used to support a feminist exegesis of the Bible.

Some feminist interpretations attempt to honestly exegete sacred texts to determine the meaning as it applies to women while others attempt to read a contemporary view of feminism into the text without regard to the meaning of the original manuscripts.

Those feminist theologians working within the structure of traditional and established religions and denominations typically base their conclusions upon an active reading and interpretation of scripture or other sacred texts. In this exegetical process, the reader attempts to understand not only the meaning of the words, but also the time, place, and purpose for which the particular biblical book was written. This type of act of reading includes consideration of the meaning of the original words used in the text as well as the culture, society, and community to which the author was writing. The purpose of an active reading of the text is to understand what the author is saying outside the strictures of cultural limitations. This active reading of the text is intended to help the reader determine what the author intended (exegesis) rather than what the reader or other readers perceive the author may or should have meant (eisegesis). In addition, feminist theologians read biblical texts with an eye to women's experiences in ancient and modern religious and cultural perspectives.

Another reason for a feminist interpretation of Scripture is to reexamine certain passages about the role of women to determine if they are reflections of theology or reflections of ancient society and culture. For example, a number of passages in the Christian New Testament discuss the role of women not only in the church but in the home, discussing how they should dress and act and generally putting them "in their place." In the letter to the Ephesians, the author specifically tells women to be submissive to their husbands (Eph. 5:22). Although to many conservative theologians the interpretation of this passage is clear, more moderate and feminist theologians point out that the passage sits in the middle of a household code typical to the time period and that the author of the passage also says that all Christians should submit to each other (Eph. 5:21). Feminist theologians also point to the example of the early church in which women were not only priests but also bishops.

Gender-Neutral Language

In addition to the ordination of women, many feminist theologians emphasize the need for feminine or gender-neutral names for God. The purpose of this emphasis is to counteract what they see as an unwarranted support for patriarchal structure within religion through the use of masculine names for God. The names Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, for example, are sometimes changed to neutral and more descriptive titles such as Creator, Redeemer, and Sustainer. More conservative theologians, on the other hand, object to such changes, citing rationales such as the fact that Jesus refers to God the Father in the Bible. Feminist theologians, however, frequently counter that God is a spirit and that spirits are without gender. More militant feminist theologians, however, go further and refer to Mother/Father God, to the outrage of many moderate and conservative theologians. However, such a concept is neither as New Age or modern as one might think: more than one medieval text utilizes mother imagery for the concept of God.

Conclusion

Feminist theology is a theological movement intended to reexamine scriptural teachings on women and women's roles from a woman's perspective. For those feminist theologians working within the confines of traditional church or religious structures, this tends to express itself as a movement to revitalize and change archaic and misogynistic thinking. For those feminist theologians who work outside the confines of traditional church religious structures, this is typically expressed as a rejection of traditional concepts of God in favor of a more feminist view of spirituality.

From within traditional religions or denominational lines, feminist theologians tend to emphasize abolishment of archaic, reactionary patriarchal views of religion and church in favor of more egalitarian views that emphasize equality between the genders. One of the major goals of this type of feminist theology is to revitalize the traditional religious or denominational structure and teachings. To a great extent, this type of feminist theology is based on a feminist hermeneutic of sacred texts. From the point of view of traditional religion, such an approach is often appropriate. However, the reading of Scripture or other sacred texts through the lens of a woman's point of view can easily cross the line between exegesis and eisegesis, damaging the very structure it was meant to revitalize.

Terms & Concepts

Eisegesis: An approach to the interpretation of scripture in which the interpreter tries to shapes the interpretation of a passage to fit his/her existing belief rather than adjusting the belief to match the exegesis of the passage. (The term eisegesis comes from the Greek, meaning to "lead in.")

Exegesis: The critical interpretation of a text in which the interpreter tries to understand the meaning of the text, typically in greater context. (The term exegesis comes from the Greek, meaning to "lead out").

Feminism: An ideology that is opposed to gender stratification and male dominance. Feminist beliefs and concomitant actions are intended to help bring justice, fairness, and equity to all women and aid in the development of a society in which women and men are equal in all areas of life.

Feminist Theology: A theological movement — primarily within Christianity and Judaism — to reexamine the scriptural teachings on women and women's roles from a woman's perspective. Feminist theology attempts to counter arguments or practices that place women in inferior spiritual or moral positions.

Fundamentalism: A theological movement within many religions (e.g., Christianity, Judaism, Islam) that attempts to reject the tenets and influences of contemporary secular culture and return to the basics (i.e., fundamentals) of the faith, typically through the literal interpretation of scripture.

Hermeneutics: The science and art of study, interpretation, and understanding of texts, typically religious scripture.

Marginalization: To relegate a person or subgroup to the outer edge of the group (i.e., margin) by demonstrating through word or action that the person or subgroup is less important and less powerful than the rest of the group.

Postmodernism: A worldview beginning in the latter half of the twentieth century that questions or rejects claims of absolute certainty and objective truth.

Theology: The study and knowledge of the nature of God; the rational inquiry into religious questions and the search for religious truth.

Bibliography

Burke, K. C. (2012). Women's agency in gender-traditional religions: A review of four approaches. Sociology Compass, 6, 122–133. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=70599986

Porterfield, A. (1987). Feminist theology as a revitalization movement. Sociological Analysis, 48 , 234–244. Retrieved 28 April 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=17598799&site=ehost-live

Rafferty, A. (2012). Feminist theology now. Feminist Theology: The Journal of the Britain & Ireland School of Feminist Theology, 20, 190–194. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=74044740

Ringe, S. H. (1992). When women interpret the Bible. In C. A. Newsom & S. H. Ringe (Eds.), The Women's Bible Commentary. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1–9.

Ruether, R. (2012). The development of feminist theology: Becoming increasingly global and interfaith. Feminist Theology: The Journal of the Britain & Ireland School of Feminist Theology, 20, 185–189. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=74044744

Suchocki, M. H. (1994). The idea of God in feminist philosophy. Hypatia, 9 , 57–68. Retrieved 28 April 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=9412133110&site=ehost-live

Torjesen, K. J. (1995). When women were priests: Women's leadership in the early church and the scandal of their subordination in the rise of Christianity. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco.

Suggested Reading

Brock, R. N., Parker, R. A., Blumenthal, D., West, T., Kim, J., & Fortune, M. (2002). A witness for/from life: Writing feminist theology as an act of resisting violence — responses to Proverbs of Ashes: Violence, redemptive suffering, and the search for what save us. Journal of Religion and Abuse, 4 , 69–96. Retrieved 28 April 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=10890722&site=ehost-live

de Haardt, M. (2011). Expanding the concepts and the field: Feminist liberation theology and beyond. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion (Indiana University Press), 27, 114–118. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=61237651

Michaelson, J. (2012). Kabbalah and queer theology. Theology & Sexuality: The Journal of the Institute for the Study of Christianity & Sexuality, 18, 42–59. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=90143971

Munson, E. & Dickinson, G. (1998). Hearing women speak: Antoinette Brown Blackwell and the dilemma of authority. Journal of Women's History, 10 , 108–126.

O'Connor, J. (1989). Rereading, reconceiving and reconstructing traditions: Feminist research in religion [Book Review]. Women's Studies, 17 (1/2), 101–123. Retrieved 28 April 2008 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=5807999&site=ehost-live