Feminization of Poverty

The feminization of poverty refers to the increasing proportion of women and children living at or below the poverty line. This phenomenon is significant not only because it highlights the challenges faced by women, but also due to the interconnection between women's poverty and the poverty of their children. Several factors contribute to this trend, including a rise in female-headed households, persistent gender wage gaps, and societal gender roles that often limit women's opportunities for financial independence. The reality of poverty disproportionately affects young women who are heads of their households, as well as older women who, due to their longer life expectancy, face financial insecurity in their later years.

Poverty among women is often exacerbated by systemic issues such as inadequate child support post-divorce, a lack of affordable childcare, and the impact of economic downturns on public assistance programs. While educational attainment among women has improved, the structural inequalities in the workforce persist, leading to a higher risk of poverty for many. Understanding the feminization of poverty requires a nuanced approach that considers the diverse experiences of women, the socio-economic factors at play, and the need for effective social policies aimed at alleviating these challenges.

Published in: 2021

By: Wienclaw, Ruth A.

Subject Terms

Feminization of Poverty

Abstract

The feminization of poverty is the phenomenon in which an increasing proportion of those living at or below the poverty line are women. This is an important issue not only because it affects women, but because women tend to live longer than men and be at greater risk of living in poverty in their old age, and also because the poverty of women frequently represents the poverty of children. There are a number of correlates that have been found to be related to the phenomenon of women living in poverty. However, these are not causes of the phenomenon nor do they necessarily indicate that a woman is at risk for becoming poor. To better understand the feminization of poverty, it is important to determine what factors place women at higher risk for poverty and what factors mitigate this probability. In addition, better social programs need to be developed not only to help raise the quality of life for women living in poverty through welfare in the short term, but also to raise it more permanently through helping women overcome the factors that make them at risk.

Overview

If one takes a tour of any large city or metropolitan area, the reality of poverty and homelessness quickly becomes apparent. On one hand, one can typically see luxury apartment buildings, high-end shops, and other trappings of affluence. On the other hand, one can also see public housing, homeless beggars, and soup kitchens. Although it may be difficult to see these things from the top of the penthouse suite, the truth is that the poor are always with us. Poverty in the United States fluctuates, although in general it has been on the decline since the 1950s; the poverty rate fell each year between 1993 and 2000 (when it hit 11.3 percent), though there was a slight increase later due to the 2008–2009 economic downturn. In 2017, 12.3 percent of the population was living in poverty.

Although historically, issues related to poverty were typically broken out according to race or ethnicity, social scientists today are increasingly concerned with the demographic of women living at or below the poverty line. Although one of the most important demographics in the feminization of poverty comprises young women who are the heads of their households, these are not the only victims. Older women, too, are increasingly affected by poverty, due in part to the fact that they live longer than men and are often financially less secure in their later years. In addition, the feminization of poverty affects not only women, it affects their children as well. In 2017 over 25 percent of women-headed households with no spouse present were living in poverty.

Increase in Feminization of Poverty. Of the poor, the disproportionate number has always comprised women and children. However, more recently, the proportion of women and children among those living at or below the poverty line has been increasing. This phenomenon—referred to as the feminization of poverty—is not only national, but global as well. Within the United States, the feminization of poverty is the result of several factors, including a dramatic growth in families in which a woman is the head of the household, a decline in the proportion of the elderly who are living at or below the poverty level, and continuing gender stratification with concomitant wage inequality between women and men. For example, more than 40 percent of women who head households are living in poverty. These women tend to be young, a fact that, coupled with a decrease in wages of young workers in recent years, makes such households more at risk for poverty. Another reason for the increasing number of young women who are heads of households is that extended families—which were the center of familial life for many generations—have become increasingly replaced by nuclear families. This means, for example, that a divorced woman is more likely to set up her own household rather than move back in with her parents. Similarly, single teenage mothers are more likely to set up their own households rather than to continue to live with their parents. As a result, in both these types of situations, a new female head of household situation is created (Pressman, 1988).

Divorce Rate. In addition, the divorce rate in the United States is relatively high and mothers often receive little child support from their former spouses or the fathers of their children, factors that compound to increase the likelihood of women needing to support a family with insufficient income. Further, women tend to live longer than men, making older women more at risk for poverty as their sources of income (traditionally lower because of gender stratification) run out. In addition, many observers (conflict theorists in particular) also note that the feminization of poverty is due to other features of discrimination against women, most notably sexual harassment, sexual discrimination in the job market, and the difficulty in finding affordable child care. Because of such factors, women living in poverty tend to live with lower income than men living in poverty.

Lower Educational Achievement. Some observers have suggested that the feminization of poverty is a result of lower educational achievement by women. However, statistics show that education levels have increased rapidly not only in general but for women in particular since the era of World War II. A more promising explanation, therefore, is the changing age in racial makeup of households headed by women.

Despite the alarmingly high figures for the feminization of poverty, not all women living at or below the poverty line are doing so permanently. Many are in transition while undergoing an economic crisis such as the death, disability, or departure of a spouse. However, the other half of poor women in the United States are dependent on either the welfare system or on friends or relatives for help. The feminization of poverty is due not only to sociological issues, however, but to political ones as well. Federal budget cuts have also contributed to this phenomenon. For example, in November 2013 the US Congress cut the budget for food stamps by about $5 billion, which affected 47 million people. In addition, since women tend to be more reliant on public sector jobs than are men, federal budget cutbacks also negatively impact the ability of poor women to earn an income.

Applications

Relative Proportions of the Sexes. The feminization of poverty is a serious issue, however, and it has been proposed that there are some difficulties with this concept that may make it misleading. Gimenez points out that far from being an increasing trend, the relative proportions of the sexes living in poverty has not changed since the earliest available data gathered by the Census Bureau (1999b). Given this relative consistency of the statistics, therefore, there are some difficulties in considering the concept of the feminization of poverty as a recent and intensifying process.

There are some difficulties with the concept and the way that it is sometimes extrapolated to apply to all women equally. Gimenez rightly points out that the concept of the feminization of poverty is based on census data that do not differentiate between the social classes (1999a). As a result, the concept of the feminization of poverty is often framed in statistical categories rather than theoretical ones. For example, although too many women live at or below the poverty line, other women in the middle and upper classes do not. Many of these may have jobs that bring them significant income and offer them adequate retirement packages so that they do not have to be concerned about becoming poor. As a result, just because a person is female does not automatically mean that she is at higher risk for poverty. Other factors such as education, job and career status, and even spouse's financial status must also be taken into account.

However, Gimenez goes on to argue from a Marxist-feminist perspective that there are some factors that are common to all women that make them more at risk for poverty despite factors such as class. The first of these is the fact that there have been changes in a number of variables in recent years that have contributed to the observed increase in female heads of households. For example, women have a higher life expectancy than men, which leads to a situation in which an increasing number of older women live alone. Statistics show that a significant proportion of these older women are poor. Further, increases in demographics such as the number of women giving birth outside of marriage, high rates of divorce and separation, or women who prefer to live alone and focus on their careers while postponing marriage all contribute to this phenomenon. In addition, factors affecting men can also be correlated with women's poverty. For example, the unemployment rate for men and decline in wages are found to be positively correlated with marital stress and violence and the probability of separation or divorce. Welfare law in some states also makes it difficult, if not impossible, for men who are chronically unemployed or underemployed to form families by denying eligibility to two-parent families.

Societal Norms. Another set of factors that can increase the probability of women living in poverty arises from society's norms and expectations regarding gender roles in this culture. Many girls are socialized from an early age to put the obligations of family and home first, resulting in a situation where some women do not have the necessary skills to be competitive for higher-paying jobs in the marketplace. In cases such as a divorce, for example, this type of woman may find herself in a situation where she is unable to successfully compete for the salaries needed to continue to be able to raise her family as a single parent. Similarly, some women put their careers on hold while raising a family, a fact that puts them behind the curve when trying to compete for better jobs. Another aspect of gender role expectations in society is that although the activities performed by women domestically are invaluable to society, they are not only devalued by that same society, but keep them from being able to participate fully in the labor force. As a result, women tend to act as an unpaid labor force in the home and an underpaid labor force in the workplace.

Even so, women as a group are a diverse set and not equally at risk for poverty. Gimenez, for example, argues that although gender related factors are relevant to the discussion of the feminization of poverty, they are not, in fact, causes of poverty but are merely correlated with it (1999a). She further argues that these factors are only correlates of poverty for those women who are otherwise at risk for it. For example, some women have capital of their own that is independent of marriage or paid employment. Such women are less likely to become poor than those without such means. On the other hand, women (or men) who do not own property are always at greater risk of becoming poor than those who do. In particular, those without income-producing property, an income substantial enough to allow them to make regular and substantial contributions to savings, or a secure and well-paying job are at risk of poverty.

Conclusion

The feminization of poverty is the phenomenon in which an increasing proportion of those living at or below the poverty level are women and children. Women are often at greater risk for poverty due to a number of factors including the gender role expectations placed on them in society. This situation is compounded by the fact that women tend to live longer than men, thereby becoming an increasing proportion of older adults living in poverty. Further, in many cases, the statistic of a woman living at or below the poverty level also signifies that one or more children are also living at or below the poverty level. None of this is to say, of course, that the plight of women living in poverty is more important than the plight of men living in poverty. However, it is an important population with a significant problem that needs to be addressed politically by the implementation of better policies that will help women at risk to raise their standard of living. Further, this problem needs to be addressed by social scientists by better understanding the factors leading to the so-called phenomenon of the feminization of poverty as well as to predicting those who are at risk and determining ways to help them. Women are not a uniform and homogeneous group. To better understand the feminization of poverty, it is important to determine what factors place women at higher risk for poverty and what factors mitigate this propensity.

Terms & Concepts

Capitalism: An economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately owned (i.e., not owned by the government or state) either individually or corporately (i.e., by a group of individuals) and operated for profit. In capitalism, investments, distribution, income, production, and pricing are determined by a free market economy.

Class: A group of people or stratum within society that shares a similar level of wealth and income and that have access to the same resources, power, and perceived social worth. Social class is the stratum of the group within the society.

Conflict Perspective: An approach to analyzing social behavior that is based on the assumption that social behavior is best explained and understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups.

Correlation: The degree to which two events or variables are consistently related. Correlation may be positive (i.e., as the value of one variable increases the value of the other variable increases), negative (i.e., as the value of one variable increases the value of the other variable decreases), or zero (i.e., the values of the two variables are unrelated). Correlation does not imply causation.

Demographic Data: Statistical information about a given subset of the human population such as persons living in a particular area, shopping at an area mall, or subscribing to a local newspaper. Demographic data might include such information as age, gender, or income distribution.

Ethnicity: A social construct used to describe a relatively large group of people that shares a common and distinctive culture such as a common history, language, religion, norms, practices, and customs. Although members of an ethnic group may be biologically related, ethnicity is not the same as race.

Feminism: An ideology that is opposed to gender stratification and male dominance. Feminist beliefs and concomitant actions are intended to help bring justice, fairness, and equity to all women and aid in the development of a society in which women and men are equal in all areas of life.

Feminization of Poverty: The phenomenon in which an increasing proportion of those living at or below the poverty line are women and children.

Gender Role: Separate patterns of personality traits, mannerisms, interests, attitudes, and behaviors that are regarded as "male" and "female" by one's culture. Gender role is largely a product of the way in which one was socialized and may not be in conformance with one's gender identity.

Gender Stratification: The hierarchical organization of a society in such a way that members of one gender have more access to wealth, prestige, and power than do the members of the other gender.

Poverty Line: The minimum annual income necessary for an adequate standard of living. If a household's income is less than this threshold, the members of the household are considered to be in poverty. The poverty line is determined by the government and differs from country to country. According to the United States Census Bureau, the poverty line for individuals in the U.S. is $10,590.00 and for a household of two adults and two children is $21,027.00. These figures describe income before taxes and do not include capital gains or noncash benefits like food stamps, Medicaid, or housing vouchers.

Race: A social construct that is used to define a subgroup of the human population that has common physical characteristics, ancestry, or language. Racial groups are often neither objectively defined nor homogenous, and racial categories may differ from culture to culture.

Sexual Discrimination: The differential treatment of individuals based on their sex. Although sexual discrimination can occur against either sex, in most cases in today's society it occurs against women. Sexual discrimination can be exhibited in such actions as lower wages being given to one sex for the same work when performed by the other sex, discounting of the characteristics or attributes of one sex in comparison with the other, or unfair hiring or promotion policies that are biased against one sex.

Socialization: The process by which individuals learn to differentiate between what the society regards as acceptable versus unacceptable behavior and act in a manner that is appropriate for the needs of the society.

Bibliography

Andersen, M. L., & Taylor, H. F. (2002). Sociology: Understanding a diverse society. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Gimenez, M. (1999a). The feminization of poverty: Myth or reality? Critical Sociology, 25(2/3), 336–351. Retrieved September 3, 2008, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=4434551&site=ehost-live

Kim, J., & Choi, Y. (2013). Feminisation of poverty in 12 welfare states: Consolidating cross-regime variations?. International Journal of Social Welfare, 22, 347–359. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=89658700

Reflections on "The feminization of poverty: Myth or reality?" (1999b). Critical Sociology, 25(2/3), 333–335. Retrieved September 2, 2008, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=4434552&site=ehost-live

Running, K., & Roth, L. (2013). To wed or to work? Assessing work and marriage as routes out of poverty. Journal of Poverty, 17, 177–197. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=87044518

Schaefer, R. T. (2002). Sociology: A brief introduction (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Zelnick, J. R. (2011). Poor women in rich countries: The feminization of poverty over the life course. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 38, 173–176. Retrieved November 11, 2013, from EBSCO online database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=69683331

Feminization of Poverty

On this Page

Subject Terms

Feminization of Poverty

Abstract

Overview

Applications

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

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