Gender and Domestic Responsibilities

Gender and domestic responsibilities refer to the traditionally assigned roles that dictate the household duties of individuals based on their gender. Historically, women have been primarily responsible for child care and housework, a division of labor rooted in biological and sociocultural norms. Men, meanwhile, have typically been seen as the providers, taking on roles outside the home. As societies evolve, particularly in developed regions, these traditional roles are increasingly being challenged. Many couples are now exploring more egalitarian arrangements, where domestic tasks are shared more equally, influenced by technological advancements that facilitate remote work and flexible scheduling.

However, the transition to an equal division of labor can be complex. Tensions may arise due to ingrained gender norms, differing standards for household tasks, and societal expectations regarding masculinity and femininity. Factors such as "gatekeeping," where women may inadvertently limit men's involvement in domestic duties, can also complicate the sharing of responsibilities. Ultimately, as more women enter the workforce and the nature of jobs continues to change, the expectations surrounding domestic responsibilities are likely to evolve, reflecting a shift towards greater equality in both the home and workplace.

Published in: 2021

By: Wienclaw, Ruth A.

Subject Terms

Gender and Domestic Responsibilities

The gender roles that define what it is to be female or male within a culture have historically placed the responsibility for child care and housework on the woman. This situation originated due to biological considerations such as the need for women to nurse a child and men being physiologically more suited to face the dangers of the outside world. While the reasons for the division of labor as traditionally practiced have changed, mostly due to industrialization, many couples have difficulty with the equal sharing of domestic tasks for a number of reasons, including the close association of gender identity and housework, gatekeeping and managerial responsibility associated with domestic responsibilities, and issues of standards for child care and household chores. Although some couples still use the traditional gender roles to apportion domestic responsibilities, others are trying different divisions of labor, with advancements in modern technology making this easier. As increasing numbers of couples take more egalitarian attitudes toward domestic responsibilities, it is likely that the norms of society will gradually change to make this situation more acceptable.

Keywords Culture; Economic Development; Gender; Gender Identity; Gender Role; Gender Stereotype; Information Technology; Norms; Postindustrial; Sex; Social Construct; Socialization; Society; Telework

Sex, Gender & Sexuality > Gender & Domestic Responsibilities

Overview

Traditional Division of Labor

Within the home, there has traditionally been a division of labor based on gender. Although in some cultures today this structure is being replaced by a more egalitarian one, traditionally, women and men have each had their own set of responsibilities in the home, typically based on the perceived abilities and demands on each of the sexes. In virtually every culture and society around the planet, women have the primary responsibility for child care. Although alternatives for breast-feeding exist today, historically it has only been the woman who has been able to nurse the child and therefore ensure the survival of the race. Similarly, hunting and waging war are traditional responsibilities for the men of a culture. This division of labor arose due to the physical capacities of women (e.g., their size, shape, and strength), women's psychological and psychological makeup (hypothetically), and women's reproductive biology, all of which made them less suited than men for war and hunting. Conversely, the physical capacities, psychological makeup, and reproductive biology of men made them less suited for home life and more suited for hunting and war. While norms regarding child care tend to be fairly consistent (at least historically) from culture to culture, all the aspects of the division of labor between the sexes are not. For example, in some societies, women care for fowl, small animals, or dairy animals, and in other societies men have these responsibilities. Although the norms for division of labor between the sexes differ from culture to culture, every culture does have norms regarding the division of labor between the sexes.

Sex vs. Gender

To understand the division of domestic labor that occurs between genders in many cultures, one must first understand the differences between sex and gender. Sex is biological in nature and gender is sociocultural in nature. One's sex determines one's biological destiny, such as the ability to bear or sire children. Gender, on the other hand, is the psychological, social, cultural, and behavioral characteristics associated with being female or male; gender is a learned characteristic based on one's gender identity and learned gender role. Gender is a society's interpretation of the cultural meaning of one's sex. In fact, some theories posit that we "do” gender, meaning that gender is a social construct that is interpreted by members of a society through the ongoing social interactions that individuals have with each other. Such constructs can easily give rise to gender stereotypes, or culturally defined patterns of expected attitudes and behavior that are considered appropriate for one gender but not the other. Gender stereotypes tend to be simplistic and over-generalized perceptions of one gender or the other and do not take into account the characteristics or aptitudes of the individual. For example, although the traditional gender stereotype for domestic responsibilities might be that women stay home and clean the house and raise the family while men go out and work, the fact that many women in today's society are successful physicians, scientists, lawyers, business owners, and executives (among other jobs traditionally thought to be "male") while many men share in domestic responsibilities or even stay home with the children demonstrates that it is the abilities and aptitudes of the individual — not the individual’s gender or sex — that should prescribe the parameters in which that individual can work.

Despite being social constructs, in some ways, gender roles are biologically based. Physiologically, it is women who must gestate and bear the young of the species. However, it can be argued that biological destiny in many ways ends there, at least when it comes to domestic responsibilities. It is no longer necessary for women to even stay home to nurse an infant. Not only can infants be bottle-fed using formula, women can express breast milk so that the baby continues to get all the immunological benefits of breast feeding without the mother needing to be physically present. Gender does have a biological foundation in the physiological differences between females and males. However, the way that gender is interpreted differs from culture to culture and, in some ways, from individual to individual.

Changing Roles in Developed Societies

Although the historical norms regarding the division of labor between the sexes are similar across cultures, to a great extent these norms are changing in more developed societies. As mentioned above, women are no longer confined by their biology to be physically present with an infant to ensure its survival. Similarly, many of the jobs in industrial and postindustrial societies no longer require the physical strength necessary in hunter-gather societies to go out and literally bring home the bacon. For example, jobs today in information technology require little more physical strength than the ability to sit in front of a computer. In postindustrial societies, success in the job market depends on mental rather than physical skill. Research has repeatedly shown that there is no difference between the sexes in intellectual capacity. As women earn more gender equality in the workplace, they tend to look for more gender equality in the home as well. This attitude affects the division of labor for domestic responsibilities.

Applications

Equal Division of Labor in the Home

Although the increasing participation of women in the workplace brings with it a concomitant need in many cases to renegotiate the division of labor within the home, this can be a tricky proposition. Despite the fact that married mothers are increasingly working outside the home, research indicates that wives are still performing many of the domestic responsibilities in the home (Rasmussen, Hawkins, & Schwab, 1996). This phenomenon — sometimes referred to as the "second shift" — can be the source of significant conflict within the home if it is not satisfactorily resolved. Further, research has found that the equal sharing of domestic responsibilities (including both child care and housework) can significantly increase the psychological health of both mothers and fathers.

Difficulties: Male Hang-ups

Coming to the point of equal domestic responsibilities can be a difficult process. First, as discussed above, the traditional division of labor between the sexes has been for men to work outside the home and for women to work inside (including being primarily or totally responsible for both caring for the children and for housework). Since the work of women in the home is typically devalued by many cultures, the adjustment to equally shared domestic tasks is often more difficult for men to make than for women. In many ways, discussions of the division of domestic labor are only the tip of the iceberg and represent deeper attitudes and beliefs held by the wife and husband concerning gender roles and identities in general. For example, although they may be egalitarian in theory, some men find the actual practice of sharing domestic responsibilities to be difficult either to envision or to practice. This typically means that there are deeper issues regarding gender roles and what tasks or activities are or are not masculine.

Difficulties: Female Hang-ups

However, cultural norms and gender roles are deeply ingrained, and it is not necessarily only men who find it difficult to share domestic responsibilities in practice. For example, when their husbands actually take over some of the traditional domestic responsibilities in the family, some women gate-keep, or resist or manage their husband's participation in domestic responsibilities, even if they are working full-time themselves. This situation may arise from the woman's own concepts of traditional gender roles and the reluctance to give them up or from feeling that her gender identity is threatened by her husband's non-traditional participation in the home. It has also been hypothesized that women may gate-keep because the types of jobs that many of them can find outside the home typically do not have as much prestige as those of their husbands. As a result, sharing domestic responsibilities can negatively impact the self-esteem of some women because they see their husband as more competent outside the home and do not want to see him as equally competent inside the home as well. For this reason, gatekeeping can occur even when women work full-time and objectively need help with domestic responsibilities. Similarly, some women attempt to take over managerial responsibility for their husband's domestic tasks. Women may plan the task (such as making appointments with a pediatrician for example) and the man may carry out the task (taking the children to the pediatrician appointment). In fact, research has shown that men are less likely to take managerial responsibility for domestic tasks even when they are the ones carrying out those tasks.

Difficulties: Standards of Domestic Responsibility

Women and men often differ on the standards to which domestic responsibilities need to be performed. For example, one spouse may deep clean every time s/he takes out the vacuum cleaner while the other spouse either performs the task less often (i.e., tolerates more clutter or dirt) or performs it less minutely. This can lead to disagreements over how a task should be done. In many cases, this means that the spouse who has more rigid standards for how the task should be performed either over-manages the task or takes it over her/himself. In such cases, it is often important for the couple to determine the difference between their standards for the performance of a task and set minimum standards. For example, for hygiene reasons, bathroom fixtures need to be routinely cleaned and sanitized. Determining minimum standards for the performance of this task is a more or less objective matter that can be discussed dispassionately. On the other hand, there are other domestic tasks within the bathroom that are more subjective (e.g., streaks on the mirror, placement of objects on the vanity top, or even how one squeezes toothpaste from the tube). Spouses frequently disagree on the standards to which such tasks need to be performed.

Difficulties: Guilt

Women may experience problems with their self-esteem, stress, or guilt when they find that they cannot take on all the domestic responsibilities involved in child care and housework as well as all the duties and activities associated with their careers. The guilt experienced by these women, however, may be more than a personal issue related to gender identity and self-esteem. Some observers have suggested that guilt arising in such situations is actually inherent in society (Guendouzi, 2006). Research in the United Kingdom has found that women often look for employment that will allow them to continue to do their domestic tasks (child care in particular). However, it is unclear whether this trend is due to women choosing to take on a greater portion of the domestic responsibilities in the household or because the pressure of society to do this is difficult to resist. The construct of a "good mother" is prevalent throughout Western society and can be seen in the media and advertising.

The Benefits of Technology

As communication and information technology continue to advance, it is becoming increasingly possible for women to telework from home so that they can continue to play a major role in the lives of their children or do other domestic tasks during the day (e.g., put a load of laundry in the washer while waiting for a fax to come through). In teleworking, an employee works outside the traditional office or workplace — typically at home or while traveling, and the transmission of information and documents occurs via telecommunications or network technology, including the Internet. The teleworker typically has little personal contact with coworkers but communicates with them electronically through email, telephone, teleconferencing, or other communication media. Data, documents, and communication are transmitted via telecommunications or network technology.

Conclusion

Although there historically has been little change in the division of labor for domestic responsibilities across cultures, the increasing numbers of women entering the workplace and the changing nature of many jobs in the postindustrial twenty-first century means that this division of labor needs to be rethought in many situations. Some couples continue to work best under the traditional paradigms of a wife/mother who stays at home and tends to the children and household while the husband/father goes out and works for a living. However, increasing levels of education for women and the changing nature of many jobs means that more and more women are also working outside the home. Some women try to handle this situation by working not only at a full-time job but also trying to do all the domestic responsibilities to the same pre-career level. Other women attempt to compromise by not working full-time outside the home, lowering their standards at home, or hiring someone to do the domestic tasks for them (such as a housecleaner, personal chef, or nanny). Still other women attempt to work out a more equitable split of domestic responsibilities with their partner. In today's age of high technology, telework options are also available to help couples balance these responsibilities.

On the one hand, it is important to note that objectively there is no reason to assume that it is the woman's responsibility to make sure that all the domestic responsibilities are completed to a satisfactory standard. Men, too, can participate in doing these tasks. On the other hand, it must also be remembered that the guilt that many women feel when "abdicating" their responsibilities at home so that they can continue in a job or career are socialized and reinforced by the norms of society. However, times are changing as are expectations about the division of labor for domestic responsibilities.

Terms & Concepts

Culture: A complex system of meaning and behavior that is socially transmitted and that defines a common way of life for a group or society. Culture includes the totality of behavior patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and other products of human work and thought of the society or group.

Economic Development: The sustainable increase in living standards for a nation, region, or society. More than mere economic growth (i.e., a rise in output), economic development is sustainable and positively impacts the well-being of all members of the group members through such things as increased per capita income, education, health, and environmental protection. Economic development is progressive in nature and positively impacts the socioeconomic structure of a society.

Gender: Psychological, social, cultural, and behavioral characteristics associated with being female or male. Gender is defined by one's gender identity and learned gender role.

Gender Identity: The recognition that one is either male or female based on both biological and psychosocial considerations, and the internalization of this gender concept into one's self-identity.

Gender Role: Separate patterns of personality traits, mannerisms, interests, attitudes, and behaviors that are regarded as "male" and "female" by one's culture. Gender role is largely a product of the way in which one was socialized and may not be in conformance with one's gender identity.

Gender Stereotype: A culturally defined pattern of expected attitudes and behavior that are considered appropriate for one gender but not the other. Gender stereotypes tend to be simplistic and based not on the characteristics or aptitudes of the individual, but on over generalized perceptions of one gender or the other.

Industrialization: The use of mechanization to produce the economic goods and services within a society. Historically, industrialization is a society's transition between farm production and manufacturing production. Industrialization is associated with factory production, division of labor, and the concentration of industries and populations within certain geographical areas and concomitant urbanization.

Information Technology: The use of computers, communications networks, and knowledge in the creation, storage, and dispersal of data and information. Information technology comprises a wide range of items and abilities for use in the creation, storage, and distribution of information.

Norms: Standards or patterns of behavior that are accepted as normal within the culture.

Postindustrial: The nature of a society whose economy is no longer dependent on the manufacture of goods (i.e., industrial), but is primarily based upon the processing and control of information and the provision of services.

Sex: The biological aspects of being either female or male. Genetically, females are identified by having two X chromosomes and males by having an X and a Y chromosome. In addition, sex can typically be determined from either primary or secondary sexual characteristics. Primary sexual characteristics comprise the female or male reproductive organs (i.e., the vagina, ovaries, and uterus for females and the penis, testes, and scrotum for males). Secondary sexual characteristics comprise the superficial differences between the sexes that occur with puberty (e.g., breast development and hip broadening for women and facial hair and voice deepening for men).

Social Construct: Any phenomenon that is invented (i.e., constructed) by a culture or society. Social constructs exist because the members of a society behave as if it exists rather than because of the availability of criteria that are necessarily obvious to an objective outside observer. Race and ethnicity are both examples of social constructs. (Also referred to as a social construction.)

Socialization: The process by which individuals learn to differentiate between what the society regards as acceptable versus unacceptable behavior and act in a manner that is appropriate for the needs of the society.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Telework: A situation in which an employee works outside the traditional office or workplace — typically at home or on travel. Transmission of data, documents, and communication occurs via telecommunications or network technology. Also referred to as telecommuting.

Bibliography

Casinowsky, G. (2013). Working life on the move, domestic life at standstill? Work-related travel and responsibility for home and family. Gender, Work & Organization, 20, 311–326. Retrieved November 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=86691366

Drew, E., & Humbert, A. (2012). Men have careers, women have babies: Unequal parental care among Irish entrepreneurs. Community, Work & Family, 15, 49-67. Retrieved November 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=70094770

Guendouzi, J. (2006). "The guilt thing": Balancing domestic and profession roles. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 901-909. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database International Bibliography of the Social Sciences. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ioh&AN=3352206&site=ehost-live ..FT.Offer, S., & Schneider, B. (2011). Revisiting the gender gap in time-use patterns: Multitasking and well-being among mothers and fathers in dual-earner families. American Sociological Review, 76, 809–833. Retrieved December 3, 2014 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=75234224

Ranson, G. (2012). Men, paid employment and family responsibilities: Conceptualizing the 'working father'. Gender, Work & Organization, 19, 741–761. Retrieved November 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database SocIndex with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=82729595

Rasmussen, K. S., Hawkins, A., & Schwab, K. P. (1996). Increasing husbands' involvement in domestic labor: Issues for therapists. Contemporary Family Therapy, 18, 209-223. Retrieved September 8, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=24521183&site=ehost-live

Stockard, J. (2000). Sociology: Discovering society (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth /Thomson Learning.

Weisshaar, K. (2014). Earnings equality and relationship stability for same-sex and heterosexual couples. Social Forces, 93, 93–123. Retrieved December 3, 2014 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=97894444

Gender and Domestic Responsibilities

On this Page

Subject Terms

Gender and Domestic Responsibilities

Sex, Gender & Sexuality > Gender & Domestic Responsibilities

Overview

Traditional Division of Labor

Sex vs. Gender

Changing Roles in Developed Societies

Applications

Equal Division of Labor in the Home

Difficulties: Male Hang-ups

Difficulties: Female Hang-ups

Difficulties: Standards of Domestic Responsibility

Difficulties: Guilt

The Benefits of Technology

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading