Women in Education

Abstract

This article provides a brief overview of some of the influential women in the history of education in the U.S. It discusses their selflessness, their passions for improving educational opportunities for others, as well as the significant contributions they made to the field of education and in related movements. Equity in the academy with regard to gender equality is also discussed.

Overview

Education has always been considered the ticket to upward mobility in the United States, promoting economic benefits such as higher earnings and increased national productivity, and noneconomic benefits like intellectual values, problem solving, and increased civic participation (Lewis, 2003). Historically, both men and women have desired these benefits. However, in many cases reaping the benefits has been more challenging for women than for men.

Women have historically been excluded from educational opportunities in the United States. During the colonial period, Americans dismissed the notion of women attaining an education and no significant education was offered to girls by the colonial schools. Some girls were taught to read, but they could not enroll in academies, colleges, or Latin grammar schools (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick, & Dupuis, 2004; Solomon, 1985). Despite the exclusivity, many women traveled the arduous road to pursue their education, open the doors for other women, and continued to make significant contributions to the education field.

Margarethe Meyer Schurz. Margarethe Meyer Schurz (1833–76) is best known as the founder of the first American kindergarten. Born in Hamburg, Germany, to an affluent family, and educated in the arts and education, Schurz developed a passion for children and their kindergarten education (Johnson et al., 2004; Heuer, 1998).

When Schurz was a teenager, she was exposed to the teachings of Friedrich Froebel, German kindergarten founder and advocate. Kindergarten is a German term, literally translated as "children's garden." Schurz became enthusiastic about the idea of a "garden for a crop called children." When she got married and moved to the United States, she brought the ideas and principles she learned from Froebel along with her (Heuer, 1998).

In 1856, Schurz and her husband settled in Watertown, Wisconsin, where she began to share Froebel's philosophy while caring for her daughter and four other children in her neighborhood. She taught them how to play games, sing songs, and perform in group activities that focused their energies and simultaneously prepped them for further schooling. Impressed with the results of Schurz's work, other parents asked her to work with their children as well. This led to the opening of the first kindergarten in the United States (Heuer, 1998).

Though small in its beginnings, with a total of five students, the idea spread quickly, due in part to speaking engagements her husband had been asked to give. Schurz's husband, Carl Schurz, was a prominent activist and politician who was often called to do speaking engagements across the country. Margarethe traveled with him and used these opportunities to talk about the benefits of kindergartens. Soon, her work captured an audience, and kindergarten became a key component of American education. Kindergarten study was also accepted as a course of study for the preparation of elementary teachers (Heuer, 1998).

Ella Flagg Young. Ella Flagg Young (1845–1918) was a female educator willing to tread new waters. A child of working-class parents, Young overcame a number of obstacles at an early age. She taught herself to read and write at age nine, and when she turned ten, her mother allowed her to attend school (Johnson et al., 2004).

A born teacher, Young took teacher education courses and found a public school teacher to help her create her own practicum opportunity to use in her own classroom upon graduation. After graduation, she worked in the Chicago public school system in various positions over 53 years. Her first role was to teach in a lower class Chicago high school as a math teacher. She then became the head of the practice-teaching classrooms, next a principal in Chicago's largest public school, and later the first female superintendent of the Chicago public schools (1909–15), a major city school system. Young enjoyed many "firsts," as each of these achievements was considered extraordinary for a female during this time period (Johnson, et al., 2004).

Young was passionate about improving democracy and education and wasn't afraid of a challenge. She was also the first female president of the male-dominated National Education Association (NEA) in 1910, a decade prior to suffrage for women (Johnson et al., 2004). A true leader in education and women's suffrage, Ella Flagg Young is one to remember.

Anne Sullivan Macy. Born in Feeding Hills, Massachusetts, to poor, illiterate Irish immigrants, Anne Sullivan Macy (1866–1936) is best known as Helen Keller's teacher and a strong educator and advocate for the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB). Her accomplishments however, are often overshadowed by Helen Keller's story (American Foundation for the Blind, 2007).

Macy faced a number of challenges in her early years. She was known to have a bad temper, by age seven she was blind due to untreated trachoma, and she had no formal schooling during her adolescent years until age 14. In addition, Macy's mother was ill with tuberculosis and died when Anne was eight. To add to this, her father was an alcoholic who later abandoned her and her younger brother (American Foundation for the Blind, 2007).

According to the American Foundation for the Blind (2007), Macy's life changed significantly for the good in 1880 when she enrolled in the Perkins School for the Blind in Boston, Massachusetts. She quickly learned to read, write, and use the manual alphabet to communicate with a friend who was deaf and blind. Learning to use the manual alphabet was the key to the future success she enjoyed. While Macy was a student at Perkins, her sight improved significantly after several successful eye surgeries. In 1886 she completed her degree at Perkins and was the valedictorian of her class. Shortly thereafter, Macy met the family of Helen Keller and was asked to come to Tuscumbia, Alabama, to work with Keller, who was blind, deaf, and mute. Macy agreed and began her lifelong role as Keller's teacher in 1887.

Macy managed to connect with Keller, who was then a rebellious and angry child. For thirteen years, Macy was Keller's educator. She used everything she had learned from the Perkins School for the Blind, and modified it to shape a smooth method of teaching for Keller. She taught Keller by signing words into Keller's hand, as a way to help her understand that everything had a name. In 1900, Keller was admitted into Radcliffe College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Macy served as her interpreter for each class until graduation. Macy took an initially unruly but bright child, and transformed her into an educated person. She did such an outstanding job that Mark Twain gave her the name "Miracle Worker" (American Foundation for the Blind, 2007).

Macy experienced great success with Helen Keller and began to receive public attention for her work. In various letters, she shared her success with the director of the Perkins School for the Blind, who later published them in the institution's annual reports. She also shared her work with Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone and also an educator of the deaf. Bell in turn publicized Macy's work through a New York newspaper and gained additional exposure (American Foundation for the Blind).

Because of their educational successes, many people wanted to meet Macy and Keller. In 1888 for example, Macy went to Washington, D.C., along with Keller, her mother, and Bell, to meet with President Grover Cleveland to share what they had learned (American Foundation for the Blind).

After Macy completed her assignment as Keller's educator, she traveled throughout the United States with two friends, Helen and Polly Thomson, giving lectures about teaching the deaf and blind. In 1924, Macy continued to work with Keller as a partner, at the American Foundation for the Blind. For that year, the two served as advocates, counselors, and fundraisers for the foundation.

Women in the Academy. After World War II, women were encouraged to reduce their participation in the labor force and colleges, which had burgeoned during the war years. However, soon they began to return to the scene. By 1960, more women were working and studying in college than ever before (Eisenmann, 2002). However, prior to this time, women had been given few formal education opportunities, with unequal access to various fields of study (Johnson et al., 2004). They often experienced marginalization and were not considered serious students (Thelin, 2004). Despite significantly limited opportunities, some women chose to take a step toward improving education for women.

Emma Willard. One woman who worked toward opening the doors for other women was Emma Willard (1787–1870). Willard was known as a pioneer and champion for the education of females during a period when very few educational opportunities existed for them. At this time, wealthy parents either hired private tutors or sent their daughters to a seminary for girls. Families with lower incomes taught their daughters to read and write at home, provided that another family member had the skills to do so (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick, & Dupuis, 2004).

Willard was one of seventeen children born to a poor family. She was first taught by her father, a farmer and college-educated Revolutionary War captain. At fifteen, she attended the district schools and for a short period of time, she enrolled in a local academy. Eager to learn, Willard continued to seek education, including studying the mathematics and philosophy textbooks of her nephew, who attended Middlebury College at the time (Solomon, 1985).

Willard realized the limitations of her educational background and was motivated to make other educational opportunities available to women. She was the first to publicly declare that advanced education for women should not depend solely on the individual and chance circumstances. Willard's greatest accomplishment came in 1821, with the establishment of Troy Seminary, one of the first seminaries for women in Troy, New York. With no endowment, the school opened to offer an educational program comparable to the boys' school. Owned and run by the Willard family for three generations, the school experienced great success for many years (Solomon, 1985; Johnson, et al., 2004.)

Martha Carey Thomas. Martha Carey Thomas, also known as M. Carey Thomas or Carey Thomas (1857–1935), was an educator and advocate for higher education for women. Like Emma Willard, she was known as a pioneer in women's education, and remembered for the roles she played at Bryn Mawr College, including serving as president of the institution (Lewis, 2007).

Thomas was born in Baltimore, Maryland, into a Quaker family and received her initial education in Quaker schools. Her father was a physician and her mother and aunt were very active in the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), a women's organization focused on eliminating the sale of alcohol in establishments (Lewis, 2007).

As a child, Thomas was an avid reader with a strong will. With the influence of her mother and aunt, her interest in women's rights began early and enhanced her desire to attend Cornell University in the late 1800s. With her mother's support and despite the discouragement from her father (a trustee of the male-only Johns Hopkins University at the time), Thomas enrolled in college at Cornell and earned a degree in 1877 (Lewis, 2007).

Additional education came in the form of formal tutoring. Because Thomas was not allowed to take formal classes at John Hopkins, she was tutored privately. Again with reluctance, Thomas's father allowed her to enroll at the University of Leipzig. She began to rethink her decision to attend the university when she was informed that the University of Leipzig would not award PhDs to women. In addition, classroom etiquette at the university was a problem for Thomas. So that she did not distract male students, she was made to sit behind a screen during class time. Unwilling to deal with the discomforts at the University of Leipzig, Thomas transferred to the University of Zurich and graduated summa cum laude, making her the first woman and foreigner at the institution to achieve these accomplishments (Lewis, 2007).

Thomas exhibited strong courage worthy of esteem. Lewis (2007) writes that after she graduated, she approached the trustees at Bryn Mawr, the new Quaker women's college, about becoming president of the institution. At the time, Thomas' father was a trustee there. She was appointed as dean and professor of English instead. These positions, however, entailed performing some presidential duties, so she was able to gain the experience after all. She served as dean until 1908.

When then president, James E. Rhoads, retired in 1894, Thomas sought the presidency again and narrowly won the vote as the president of Bryn Mawr. While there, Martha Carey Thomas insisted that education at Bryn Mawr was to be of a high standard, and demanded greatness from the students. She served as president until 1922 (Lewis, 2007).

Other educational endeavors included working with Mary Gwinn, Mary Garrett, and other women in 1889 to ensure that women were admitted to the Johns Hopkins University Medical School on an equal basis. The group offered a large gift to the Medical School to guarantee that women would have an equal opportunity. In addition, Thomas kept a major interest in women's rights through her work with the National American Woman's Suffrage Association as well as other organizations. Her passion for education, equality, and peace places her as one of the most influential actors in women's education history (Lewis, 2007).

Mary McLeod Bethune. Mary McLeod Bethune (1875–1955) was one of the greatest African American educators and activists during the late 1800s and early 1900s, and is best known for fighting segregation of public venues and working toward equal opportunity in pay, hiring and education. Born in Mayesville, South Carolina, the fifteenth of seventeen children, Bethune was the first family member not born into slavery. Along with picking cotton for wages, Bethune attended a Methodist mission school during her early years. Some reports indicate that when she came home from school, she taught her elder siblings what she had learned each day (Lewis, 2007; Johnson, et al., 2004).

Bethune received a scholarship to Scotia Seminary in North Carolina in 1888. She graduated in 1893 and enrolled in what is now Moody Bible Institute in Chicago, with the intent on doing missionary work in Africa. When informed that African Americans were not eligible for these assignments, she decided to become a teacher in the Presbyterian schools throughout Georgia and South Carolina (Lewis, 2007).

Bethune's major contributions began when she moved to Florida and found that schools were needed for the families of workers being brought in to do railway work. With a small number of students, she saw her first success in the opening of the Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute in 1904. As president of the school, Bethune raised all of the funds, ran the school, and taught the students with great success (Lewis, 2007). The Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute primarily focused on educating girls who had few options for obtaining an education. It began with an elementary focus and later added secondary courses including a focus on nursing. After adding nursing courses in 1911, Bethune also opened a hospital for African American students who could not use the whites-only hospital. This hospital later closed in 1931 (Lewis, 2007).

In the 1920s, as a result of Bethune's efforts, the school became affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal Church, and in 1923, it was merged with the Cookman Institute for men to become Bethune-Cookman College. With a focus on post-secondary courses, particularly teacher training, the school grew in number to 1,000 students. As a junior college, Bethune-Cookman won full accreditation in1939 and became a four-year college in 1941(Lewis, 2007).

Bethune not only made contributions to education, but also became involved in political and civic issues. Lewis (2007) reports that Presidents Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover chose her to serve on presidential commissions on child welfare, home building, and home ownership. She was later approached by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, with whom she became close friends. Bethune often consulted with President Roosevelt regarding minority affairs. In 1936, she played a major role in establishing the Federal Committee on Fair Employment Practice. This organization was designed to help eliminate discrimination and exclusion of African Americans by the defense industry (Lewis, 2007). Roosevelt appointed Bethune to serve in the administration of various New Deal programs. Among her work with youth nationwide, she was also the only African American in the administration responsible for disbursing funds. This role included awarding scholarships to African American students (Lewis, 2007).

Though she continued to serve in political capacities, including serving as an advisor on interracial relations through President Harry S. Truman's administration, Bethune was a constant in the work of equal opportunity in hiring and education (Lewis, 2007). Her tenacity and persistence significantly impacted education as we know it today, particularly for African American women.

Viewpoints: Is There Equity in the Academy? Over the years, women have progressed in the academy, but at a slow rate. In the 1980s and 90s, more and more full-time faculty members were women, representing 40 percent of those in the faculty ranks (Harvey, 2003). In addition, benefits improved with extended tenure-clocks for child-birth, adoption, and family illnesses. Child care centers were also opened at some institutions and employment services were offered for spouses and partners of new hires. In recent years, programs have been created to support women and remove barriers, allowing them to progress throughout the academic ranks and into upper-level administrative positions (cf. Center for the Education of Women, 2005).

Unfortunately, working women still face employment discrimination. Although laws such as the 1964 Civil Rights Act played a major role in reducing some acts of discrimination, racial exclusion and gender-typing continue to exist, although in a less blatant manner (Darity & Mason, 1998). The education literature seems to focus more on gender inequalities and salary gaps in higher education than in the public elementary and secondary schools. Over the years, women have become increasingly visible in higher education. According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), in 2016 the percentage of female college-degree earners, undergraduate and graduate, was higher than that of male degree earners: 50.5 percent of women and 41.8 percent of men earned associates degrees; 39.5 percent of women and 32.7 percent of men earned bachelor's degrees; and 11.2 percent of women and 7.2 percent of men earned master's degrees (NCES, 2016). However, in 2013, less than half (44.8 percent) of the faculty in degree-granting institutions were women (NCES, 2014).

Much research has shown that historically, male privilege extends throughout academia, and adds challenges for those women who do work in higher education in various ways. For example, performance evaluations tainted by gender bias, strict tenure requirements and short tenure clocks favoring male faculty, minimal and ineffective mentoring and networking opportunities, competitive rather than collaborative work styles, and lack of support for pregnancies and family issues are obstacles that women have had to overcome in the academy (Basow, 1995; Bellas, 1992; Cohn, 2000; Gray, 1985; Handelsman et al., 2005; Jacobs, 1989a, 1989b, 2003; Kolodny, 2000; Long, 1990; Mason & Goulden, 2002; Nelson & Bridges, 1999; Orenstein, 1994, 2002; Park, 1996; Riger, Stokes, Raja, & Sullivan, 1997; Sadker & Sadker, 1994; Sorcinelli & Near, 1989; Yoder, 1985).

Salary gaps are at issue as well. Women generally earn on average, 86 cents per hour for every $1 a man earns across all fields (Johnson, et al., 2004; "Wide pay gap womens biggest concern," 2006). In 2017 the gender wage gap relative to white men differed depending on race and ethnicity, with Latinas/Hispanic women earning 52 percent, Black/African American women earning 62 percent, and white women earning 75 percent (Carnevale, Smith, & Gulish, 2018). Although there are more female faculty members at higher education institutions than ever before, they still steadily lag behind men in their earnings and the positions they hold. At every type of institution and at all ranks, uneven distributions of salary exist between men and women. Female full-time faculty continue to earn, on average, only 80 percent of what their male peers make in salary, and even at the full professorship level, women earn about 88 percent of what men make in the same position (Boulard, 2006). To say the least, women still have some way to go to experience true equity in the academy.

Terms & Concepts

1964 Civil Rights Act: The 1964 Civil Rights Act enforces the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes.

Academy: The academy refers to a group of colleges and/or universities.

Employment Discrimination: Employment discrimination involves exclusion of specific individuals on the basis of race, sex, religion, national origin, physical disability, and age by employers. Discriminatory practices include bias in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination, compensation, and various types of harassment.

Male Privilege: Male privilege refers to rights given only to men on the basis of their gender.

Normal Schools: Normal schools were two-year teacher education institutions established during the eighteenth century.

Public Schools: Public schools refer to elementary and high schools in the United States that provide free education to students of a community or district. These schools are supported by public funds.

Salary Gap: Salary gaps refer to unequal pay between individuals with the same qualifications performing the same job.

Seminary: A seminar is a specialized higher education institute which focuses on philosophy, theology and spirituality.

Teacher Education Courses: Teacher education courses are courses that help teachers develop quality, effective teaching and learning strategies to use in the classroom.

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Wells, R. S., Seifert, T. A., Padgett, R. D., Park, S., & Umbach, P. D. (2011). Why do more women than men want to earn a four-year degree? Exploring the effects of gender, social origin, and social capital on educational expectations. Journal of Higher Education, 82 , 1–32. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=57437076

Wide pay gap womens biggest concern on Suffrage Day. (2006, September 19). Human Rights Commission. Retrieved May 14, 2007, from http://www.hrc.co.nz/2006/09/19/wide-pay-gap-womens-biggest-concern-on-suffrage-day/

Yoder, J. D. (1985). An academic woman as a token: A case study. Journal of Social Issues, 41 , 61–72. Retrieved November 5, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=16406979&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Campbell, J. M. (1996). The prairie schoolhouse. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

Campella, G., Geismar, K., & Nicoleau, G. (1995). Shifting histories: Transforming schools for social change. Cambridge: Harvard Educational Publishing Group.

Edwards, J. (2002). Women in American education, 1820–1955: The female force and educational reform. Westport: Greenwood Press.

Horowitz, H. L. (1999). The power and passion of M. Carey Thomas. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

Maher, F. A., & Tetreault, M. (2011). Long-term transformations: Excavating privilege and diversity in the academy. Gender & Education, 23, 281–297. Retrieved December 20, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=61274741

Marschke, R., Laursen, S., Nielsen, J. M., & Rankin, P. (2007). Demographic inertia revisited: An immodest proposal to achieve equitable gender representation among faculty in higher education. Journal of Higher Education, 78 , 1–26. Retrieved May 1, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23003146&site=ehost-live

Saulnier, C. F., & Swigonski, M. (2006). As feminists in the academy… Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, 21 , 361–364. Retrieved November 5, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=22868464&site=ehost-live

Watts, R. (2013). Society, education and the state: Gender perspectives on an old debate. Paedagogica Historica, 49 , 17–33. Retrieved November 5, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85041560&site=ehost-live

Yamaguchi, S. (2018). Changes in returns to task-specific skills and gender wage gap. Journal of Human Resources, 53(1), 32–70. doi:10.3368/jhr.53.1.1214-6813R2. Retrieved March 7, 2018, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=127747793&site=ehost-live&scope=site