Morphology (biology)

Morphology is the study of the form and structure of animals and plants. The study can refer to an organism's outward appearance (such as shape or size), its internal structure, or the relationship between various parts of an organism and other factors. Morphologists study the development of an organism throughout history with the goal of understanding how all of the organism's parts work to produce a functional being. Morphologists also study the relations, metamorphoses, and phylogenetic (collective) development of animal and plant organs outside of their given functions. Early morphologists focused on studying the skeletal and muscular systems of different organisms, resulting in the well-known discipline of anatomy. As the science progressed, morphologists became more interested in the scientific laws and roots of animal life.

Early Morphology

The concept of morphology was first described in an 1800 medical textbook by German physiologist Karl Friedrich Burdach. However, ancient civilizations came to understand the basic structure and function of various plants and animals long before the field was given a title. Burdach used the term to define the branch of biology dedicated to the study of organismal form. More than a century later, German philosopher-biologist Hans Driesch stressed the importance of form study, believing it to be crucial to the advancement of biology.

Morphology underwent a series of alterations in the years that followed, but the science usually focused on understanding an organism's structural functionality. Early morphology was limited to deconstructing an organism's internal structure through dissection, but this only offered anatomical details without explaining the reasoning behind specific structures. Morphology was a popular science throughout the nineteenth century, and its study solved a number of biological mysteries. Morphological study also helped answer philosophical inquiries into biology, including how an animal's structure affected its way of life.

To find more answers, morphologists undertook a comprehensive approach to their research. They began studying the development of living animals, and they examined dead animals as well. Morphologists would try to observe the entire life of an animal, hoping to uncover the reasons for various developmental habits. They monitored interactions between a species and its environments, looking for patterns or links that would help them understand how an animal's surroundings affected its structure and functions. They also examined the anatomy of preserved and sectioned animals and compared findings, seeking similarities across species.

Morphology continued to evolve over the centuries. As the data became more complex and technology became more advanced, scientists began to branch off into various subcategories of morphology, such as functional morphology and ecological morphology. The field of anatomy is also an offshoot of morphology.

Categories of Morphology

Functional morphology focuses on the technical processes of an organism's structure, which explains how it works. Functional morphologists examine how the parts of an organism affect its various functions. For example, a functional morphologist would study how the relationships among the components of an organism's musculoskeletal system affect an activity, such as running. Advanced technology such as X-rays and visual recording devices now allow morphologists to examine functions like muscle activity and map out exact patterns of movement. Functional morphology often focuses on the limits of a certain function. For instance, functional morphologists seek answers to questions such as how fast can a snake slither up a hill? How much weight can the pointer finger take before it breaks? Functional morphology can also focus on simpler questions such as why are elephant ears so big? Functional morphologists believe that the function of an organ, tissue, or other body part determines its form and, in turn, that form influences function.

Ecological morphology is concerned with the relationship of the structure of an organism to its habitat. Ecological morphologists examine how a certain structure is utilized in an organism's environment. Unlike functional morphologists, ecological morphologists study natural structural function rather than manipulated function. Instead of examining how much force the beak of a hawk can withstand, ecological morphologists hone in on how the hawk's specific beak shape naturally affects various functions, such as capturing prey.

Anatomy is the most recognizable branch of morphology. The study of anatomy is also the most straightforward discipline of morphology. Anatomy deals with the structural appearance of an organism's components and determines what these structures are made of. Anatomy does not include any kind of observation or experimentation beyond immediate function. Anatomical understanding results from dissection of an organism. Comparative anatomy, which is the comparison of similar structures in different animals, helps evolutionary biologists understand how organisms have changed over time.

All three of these morphological disciplines are useful to the study of evolution. Evolutionary morphology borrows from anatomical, functional, and ecological morphology to understand how an organism's particular features came into existence. By comparing structures of similar species, evolutionary morphologists can examine how the similarities and differences among animals or plants relate to their evolutionary process. Evolutionary morphology also sheds light on animal diversity (or species diversity), which results from adaptive necessities.

Bibliography

"Anatomy." Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster Inc. Web. 22 Dec. 2014. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anatomy

"Morphology." Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster Inc. Web. 22 Dec. 2014. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morphology

Nyhart, Lynn K. Biology Takes Form: Animal Morphology and the German Universities, 1800–1900. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995, 1–6. Print.

Richmond, Elliot. "Functional Morphology." Animal Sciences. Ed. Allan B. Cobb. Vol. 2. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2002, 137–139. Print.

Sheen, Judy P. "Morphology." Animal Sciences. Ed. Allan B. Cobb. Vol. 3. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2002, 139–140. Print.