Paleolithic Period

The Paleolithic Period is an era in the history of the human species characterized by the development and use of stone tools. The Paleolithic is generally considered to have begun about 2.6 million years ago when evidence shows early human ancestors created the first tools out of chipped stone. The era lasted until the end of the last ice age and the domestication of plants and animals about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. The term Paleolithic was coined in 1865 by British archaeologist John Lubbock and means "Old Stone Age" from the Greek words paleo, "old," and lithos, "stone." The period is noteworthy for a number of significant human "firsts." It was during the Paleolithic that the first modern humans emerged, the first burials were performed, the first art was created, and the first language and religious beliefs were developed.

Background

Sometime between seven and thirteen million years ago, the ancestors of modern humans and apes split from a common genetic source. About six to seven million years ago, evidence indicates human ancestors developed the ability to walk upright, an evolutionary advantage that allowed them to see more of their environment. The species that originated the branch of the family tree that would include modern humans emerged about 2.8 million years ago. By about 2.6 million years ago, those human ancestors were believed to have developed the first tools. These tools were simple stones, chipped and shaped into cutting or pounding instruments. Because the ability to make tools was considered a defining characteristic of the human species, the milestone was used to mark the beginning of a new historical era—the Paleolithic. In 2015, archaeologists discovered stone tools dating back to 3.3 million years, although it is unknown if those were used by human ancestors or a related species.

The Paleolithic is the earliest and longest period of the Stone Age, a commonly used term referring to the era when stone was the dominant material used by humans and their ancestors. The Stone Age also includes the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age), and was followed by the Bronze Age and Iron Age. The more than two million-year length of the Paleolithic is divided into three sections. The Lower Paleolithic lasted from about 2.6 million to 300,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic closed out about 45,000 to 40,000 years ago, and the Upper Paleolithic ended about 10,000 years ago.

Lower Paleolithic

The human ancestors of the early Lower Paleolithic lived on the grasslands of East Africa. They were primarily foragers and scavengers who used crude stone tools to cut and scrape meat from the bones of animals killed by other predators. These early implements were known as Oldowan tools, named after the Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania where they were first discovered. They consisted of hammerstones used to pound chips off of other stones to produce a sharpened tool, and stone flakes knocked loose in the process and honed into cutting instruments. By about 1.8 million years ago, human ancestors had refined their toolmaking, and were chipping more of the core stones into sharp hand axes.

Eventually, these human ancestors began hunting on their own, and between 1 and 1.5 million years ago, they first began using fire to cook food. These developments were turning points in human evolution. Cooking food allowed their bodies to process food more efficiently and fueled the evolution of larger brains. With the ability to hunt for food, ancient hunters began traveling in groups in search of game. This not only led to the evolution of communal groups, but it pushed them beyond the boundaries of Africa. Archaeological evidence suggests the first human ancestors migrated to southeast Europe and Asia about 1.7 million years ago and to southeast Asia about 1.6 million years ago.

Archaeologists estimate that sometime between 765,000 and 550,000 years ago the human family tree split, with one branch eventually giving rise to the Neanderthals and another evolving into modern humans. It would be hundreds of thousands of years before the first modern humans arose, but the earliest Neanderthals emerged about 400,000 years ago. Named from a fossil discovery in Germany's Neander Valley, the Neanderthals were the first people to create shelters and hunted larger game to provide both food and clothing.

Middle Paleolithic

The boundaries of the Paleolithic eras are often debated by archaeologists, but the start of the Middle Paleolithic is generally set about 300,000 years ago. The Middle Paleolithic was dominated by the Neanderthals, who spread northward into the colder climate of Europe. The timeframe also corresponds to the development of a new tool-making process known as the Mousterian, named for an archaeological site in Le Moustier, France. Mousterian tools were made by flaking pieces from the edges of a stone core until the stone was sharpened into a point. Evidence suggests some of the stone points were attached to wooden poles and used as thrusting spears. The process demonstrated heightened levels of planning and was a definitive sign of improved intelligence.

Archaeologists believe the Neanderthals were some of the first members of the human species to display symbolic behavior. Evidence suggests that Neanderthals began to bury their dead as early as 300,000 years ago. Several mass burial sites have been discovered across Europe and the Middle East. One site, at Pontnewydd Cave in Wales, contains the bodies of five to fifteen Neanderthals and has been dated to about 230,000 years ago. While the bodies show signs of being intentionally buried, researchers disagree as to whether the practice demonstrated a belief in an afterlife or was performed for more practical reasons.

By about 130,000 years ago, burials took on a definite ritualistic aspect. Bodies were entombed in individual graves and buried with objects such as stone tools and animal bones. Graves from the later Middle Paleolithic showed signs of bodies being colored with natural red pigments or being buried with flowers or shells. The corpses were sometimes placed in a sleeping position and others were burned or allowed to decompose before burial. These actions fueled modern speculation the dead were being prepared for a journey to an afterlife.

Objects some experts regard as the first works of art have been dated from the later Lower Paleolithic to the early part of the Middle Paleolithic, but archaeologists disagree about their origins. A rough-hewn stone object known as the Venus of Berekhat Ram was created sometime between 230,000 and 700,000 B.C.E. Its resemblance to fertility figurines from the Upper Paleolithic has led to speculation it could be one of the oldest examples of human art. However, many experts believe the object was shaped by natural processes. A similar mystery surrounds the Venus of Tan-Tan, an object dated from 200,000 to 500,000 B.C.E. Cup-like markings found in cave walls in India are believed to date back at least 290,000 years, but these markings may have been used for other purposes and were not meant to have any artistic value. The first-known examples of human art were not created until about 100,000 B.C.E. Clay-covered shells worn as jewelry were discovered in Morocco and dated to about 80,000 years ago. Engraved, colored stones and shells found in a South African cave were estimated to be about 70,000 years old.

About 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens, the first true ancestor of modern humans, evolved in Africa. Like Neanderthals, Homo sapiens were nomadic hunters and gatherers, but they differed in that they had a smaller physique and larger brain than their evolutionary cousins. They exhibited a longer period of growth during childhood, a trait that allowed their young to develop outside the womb. This meant they could learn faster, adjusting to the world around them as their brains grew. This adaptive instinct may have helped early humans survive a catastrophic environmental event that occurred about 70,000 years ago. A period of drought and global cooling drastically affected Earth's climate, reducing the entire Homo sapiens population to a few thousand individuals.

Humans survived and rebounded, and by 60,000 years ago had begun to move out of Africa and populate other areas of the globe. It was during this time they began to form a system of communication that laid the groundwork for language. While Neanderthals and other human relatives had their own forms of communication, Homo sapiens developed more complex communication skills that gave them a distinct evolutionary advantage. By about 50,000 years ago, modern humans had migrated to Australia; 10,000 years later they moved into Europe.

Upper Paleolithic

Modern humans flourished by the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, while the period marked the end of the Neanderthals. Some theories suggest the Neanderthals fell victim to climate change, a poor diet, or were wiped out by the more advanced Homo sapiens. No matter what the cause, the Neanderthals became extinct sometime between 40,000 and 28,000 years ago.

Toolmaking during the Upper Paleolithic evolved into a diverse number of styles that varied by location and culture. Stone tools were still made by flaking off pieces from the core edge, but tools of this era were more refined and polished. Tools were also made from other materials such as bone, antler, and ivory. Human implements took on a more blade-like appearance as they were made into shapes longer than they were wide. The first sewing needles were made from bone and ivory during the period, allowing humans to make warmer and more protective garments.

One of the most striking developments of the Upper Paleolithic was the proliferation of cave art. While human-made rock carvings called petroglyphs were created about 60,000 years ago, painted art using mineral pigments began to develop about 40,000 years ago. The oldest known example is a mural of handprints in the Cave of El Castillo in Spain dating back to 39,000 B.C.E. A similar style of handprint art was painted in a cave on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi about 37,900 B.C.E. Because ancient humans were primarily hunters, it is not surprising that animals and hunting imagery were the most common subjects of cave art. Some of the most well-preserved examples of Paleolithic art were found at the Altamira Cave in Spain and the Lascaux Cave in France. Altamira's representations of bison and other wild animals were painted between 23,000 and 34,000 B.C.E.; Lascaux features hundreds of colorful animal images and is one of the few cave art sites to depict human figures. Archaeologists estimate Lascaux was painted between 17,000 and 15,000 B.C.E.

Other forms of art such as sculpture were also developed during the early part of the Upper Paleolithic. One of the oldest is the Lion Man of Hohlenstein Stadel, a human figure with the head of a lion dating to about 38,000 B.C.E. Female carvings known as Venus figurines are another common form of sculpture from the period. These figurines were usually depicted as pregnant or with exaggerated sexual features. Researchers believe they may have been used as fertility symbols. The Venus of Hohle Fels, a figurine carved from mammoth tusk between 33,000 and 38,000 B.C.E., is considered the earliest-known example of this type of sculpture.

While animals were commonly featured in art from the period, human figures were rarely depicted. When humans were portrayed, they were often given animal characteristics. Many researchers see this as evidence early humans practiced an animistic type of religion that saw animals as possessing spirits or souls. This may have led to a belief in animals being guardian spirits connected to humans on a mystical level. Images of human-animal hybrids may also signify an early form of shamanism, the belief that the spirt world will only communicate with humans through an intermediary known as a shaman. The figures depicted in the art may be human shamans dressed in ritualistic animal skins.

For most of the Paleolithic, climate change greatly affected humans and their ancestors. Several periods of global cooling resulted in large glaciers forming and receding across the planet. The last of these ice ages peaked about 18,000 years ago and retreated about 12,000 years ago. During most of the period, human societies had been organized around hunting and the search for food. As the climate started to warm, humans began to migrate further, entering North America sometime between 12,000 and 15,500 years ago. They also began to slowly settle in groups, eventually discovering agriculture and domesticating animals for food. These developments led to the end of the Paleolithic period and the beginning of the Mesolithic, a period that saw the beginning of farm-based settlements and more advanced stone tools and architecture.

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