Animal domestication

Although taming a wild animal, that is, acclimating it to the presence of people, is invariably a first step in domestication, the critical aspect is directing its breeding toward a functional goal. Genetic selection for desirable traits and against undesirable ones is a crucial feature of domestication. Captive wild animals in zoos or circuses cannot be considered domesticated, although they may be quite tame, and their breeding is controlled by humans. However, this breeding is not directed toward some functional goal. Mere propagation of a species or maintaining genetic diversity is insufficient to constitute domestication. Domestication is a synergistic relationship between humans and the animals involved. Humans benefit from the resources and services that the animals provide, such as food, fiber, shelter, clothing, work, sentinel duty, and companionship. Animals benefit by having humans protect them from harm, provide for their needs, and increase their numbers and range.

Characteristics of Animals Favoring Domestication

In 1865, the English naturalist Francis Galton suggested the following six physiological and behavioral characteristics that make some animals good candidates for domestication: hardiness, dominant social behavior, herd behavior, utility to humans, facile (easy) reproduction, and facile husbandry. First, by hardiness, he referred to the ability of the young to be removed from its mother and to be around humans. The guinea pig is perhaps an extreme example of tolerating removal from its mother, as it is born ready to eat solid food. Most mammals, on the other hand, initially depend on their mother’s milk. Primates are poor subjects for domestication because of their helplessness at birth and their relatively long dependence on their mothers for food and nurturing.

Second, dominant social behavior contrasts territorial behavior and refers to one animal assuming leadership, with the rest of the group acquiescing to him or her in the hierarchy. In domestication, humans co-opt the function of the leader, and animals remain submissive even as adults. Third, herd animals are contrasted to solitary animals which disperse in response to danger. Domesticated animals are penned or otherwise restricted at various times. If they remain together in herds, they are easier to manage. Fourth, utility to humans includes their use for food, fiber, work, companionship, and even worship. Humans would not try to domesticate an animal unless it had some perceived value. The purpose of domestication may change with time, however. It is likely that the initial motivation for domesticating cattle was for worship—to capture the strength and aura of these animals, which were revered and used in religious ceremonies. Work, such as pulling carts, packing, and riding, became a subsequent goal, while contemporary utility in Western societies involves meat and milk production.

The fifth characteristic is facile reproduction under confined conditions; animals with finicky reproductive behaviors and/or elaborate courtship rituals make poor candidates for domestication. Sixth, facile husbandry refers to placid disposition and versatility in terms of nutrition. Animals that are high-strung or dependent on unique foodstuffs would be weak prospects for domestication. Koalas, which eat leaves from only certain eucalyptus trees, are poor candidates. On the other hand, pigs and goats are excellent choices because they are not very fastidious in their eating habits. These six characteristics, enunciated more than a century ago, apply strongly to livestock species but less well to dogs and cats; concerning the latter, it has been argued that cats are not so much domesticated as merely tolerant of humans.

History of Animal Domestication

Archaeological evidence suggests that agriculture developed about ten thousand years ago, after the last ice age, at a time when the climate became warmer and more stable. Predictability of the weather is particularly crucial for plant domestication, which apparently developed synergistically with animal domestication, leading to agriculture. Domesticated animals simplified the acquisition of food and provided food storage in the form of “walking larders”; larger animals, such as cattle, buffalo, and horses, permitted heavier work to be done and larger distances to be covered. Farming the land made it possible for humans to abandon the nomadic lifestyle of hunter-gatherers and adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. This allowed for the development of new technologies, professional specializations, and new forms of social organization.

Domestication of any animal did not occur at once but rather over a substantial period, perhaps hundreds of years. Furthermore, estimating the dates for domestication is subject to considerable uncertainty and may need modification as new information becomes available. For some species, domestication occurred independently at more than one location. The process may have begun almost accidentally, as by raising a captured young animal after its mother had been killed and observing its behavior and response to various treatments. The domestication of an animal subsequently spread from the site of origin through trade or war.

Animal domestication occurred in various parts of the world. In the Mesopotamia, the Fertile Crescent, stretching from Palestine to southern Turkey and down the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was an important site. Sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were domesticated there by around 6000 BCE. The Indian subcontinent and East Asia were independent sites for domesticating cattle and pigs, respectively. Llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs were domesticated in the AndesMountains of South America. Domestication of cats occurred in Egypt and of rabbits in Europe. No indigenous animals were domesticated in Australia, likely because none of them were suitable for domestication. It is worthy of note that few domestications have occurred in the past thousand years. One of the more recently domesticated animals was the wild turkey approximately 2,000 years ago. It is also of interest that domesticatable species were not evenly distributed over the globe, which probably has had a lasting effect on the differential development of various cultures.

Archaeology, coupled with the natural history of domesticated animals and their wild relatives, has been essential in reconstructing the history of domestication. Examining skeletal remains at archaeological sites for changes in morphology and distribution by age and sex has helped scientists to deduce the extent of domestication. Traditional archaeology has also been supplemented by the methods of molecular biology. Examining extant breeds for their genetic relatedness has been particularly useful in distinguishing single versus dual sites of domestication.

Early Domesticates: Dogs and Reindeer

Dogs (Canis familiaris) are generally recognized as the earliest known domesticated animals. They were widespread across the Northern Hemisphere before other animals were domesticated. They were derived from wolves (Canis lupus), with whom they are fully interfertile. The earliest known dog is in a burial site in Northern Iraq that dates from 12,000 to 10,000 BCE. Other sites, dating from 10,000 to 7000 BCE, have been documented in England, Palestine, Japan, and Idaho. While it may have first occurred in China (a Chinese wolf has some of the detailed physical features of dogs), domestication probably occurred at several separate sites. Dogs accompanied the American Indians when they occupied the Americas in several waves before the end of the last ice age. Dingoes were brought to Australia by trade from Asia long after the Aborigines settled that continent 40,000 years ago. While dogs were considered food animals, they have long been used for guarding, hunting, and companionship. Subsequently, they were developed for herding.

Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) were another early domesticate, dating from around 12,000 BCE in northern Scandinavia and Russia. The reindeer has been little changed by domestication, and its range has not been extended by the process. They are well-suited to their environment but attempts to establish reindeer industries in Canada and Alaska have not been successful. Herding reindeer continues as a principle occupation of the Laplanders of Finland, Sweden, and Norway. Reindeer are used for draft (pulling loads), clothing and shelter (skins), tools (antlers), and food (meat and milk). Farming several other deer species (such as Cervus dama and Cervus elaphus) has recently gained in importance in New Zealand and Western Europe, where they are raised for meat (venison) and “velvet,” the new growth of antlers, the basis for traditional medicines in Asia. However, because these latter species have had little opportunity to be changed, they cannot be considered domesticated.

Sheep, Pigs, and Cattle

Sheep (Ovis aries) were the first of the common food animals to be domesticated. They were derived from wild sheep (Ovis orientalis) and were first domesticated in the western Fertile Crescent around 7000 BCE. Goats (Capra hircus), derived from Persian wild goats (Capra aegarus), were first domesticated in the central Fertile Crescent slightly later, between 6000 and 7000 BCE. Sheep and goats were used for food, skins, and fiber (wool or hair). Both were later selected for milk production.

Pigs (Sus domesticus) probably originated at two separate sites, the central Fertile Crescent around 6000 BCE and in eastern Asia around 5000 BCE Derived from wild pigs, they were primarily raised for meat. Despite restrictions against eating pork by Muslims and Jews, it has long been the principal meat consumed in the world. The most populous country, China, has nearly 50 percent of the world’s pigs.

Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) are derived from now-extinct wild cattle (aurochs, Bos primigenius) that ranged over much of Europe and Asia. They were probably domesticated independently at two locations, the western Fertile Crescent around 6000 BCE for Bos taurus and the Indian subcontinent around 5000 BCE for Bos indicus. Initially, the animals were worshiped and used in religious ceremonies. Reverence for cattle is still practiced by Hindus in India. Subsequently, they were developed for work, meat, and milk. Their hides are made into leather. Traditional cattle in Africa are derived from initial importations of Bos taurus and subsequent importations of male Bos indicus.

Other Domesticated Animals

Asiatic buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) were domesticated as the water buffalo in India (3000 BCE) and as the swamp buffalo in east or southeast Asia (2000 BCE). While both were developed as draft animals, the water buffalo has also been selected as a dairy animal. Fully half of the milk production in India comes from buffaloes. Despite its tropical origin, the Asiatic buffalo is not very heat tolerant and compensates by immersing in water or mud. Neither the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) nor the American buffalo (more properly, bison, Bison bison) has been domesticated. Yaks (Poephagus [Bos] grunniens) were domesticated around 3000 BCE in Tibet or surrounding areas, where they are used as pack animals and as a source of milk, hair, hides, and, usually after an otherwise productive life, meat.

Horses (Equus caballus) originated from wild horses in the Caucasus Mountains around 4000 BCE. Originally used for food and skins, they were also developed for draft and, much later, for riding. Because they came to the Middle East after the development of written language, their arrival is documented, so scholars do not need to depend solely on the archaeological record. Donkeys (Equus asinus) were domesticated in the Middle East and Northern Africa (3000 BCE). They are used for carrying material or people, as is the mule, a sterile cross between a horse and a donkey. Horses were integral to humans for exploration, hunting, agriculture, and warfare.

Llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Lama pacos) were domesticated in Peru by the Incas around 4000 BCE. Llamas are from wild guanacos and alpacas from wild vicuñas, found at higher elevations. Llamas are used as pack animals, alpacas are valued for their fine wool, and both serve as sources of meat. Camels, the one-humped dromedary (Camelus dromedarius) and the two-humped Bac trian (Camelus bactrianus) were domesticated in Arabia (2000 BCE) and Central Asia (1500 BCE), respectively. Both are pack animals, with the dromedary also used for meat.

Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) were domesticated in Peru around 3000 BCE. They continue to be used as meat animals in parts of South America. Rabbits (Oryctlagus cuniculus) were domesticated between 600 and 1000 CE in France. They are primarily raised for meat and fur, with angora rabbits producing fine wool.

Cats (Felis catus) are the animals least changed, morphologically, by domestication. In addition, they are quite capable of surviving without human intervention. Their domestication occurred relatively late, around 2000 BCE, in Egypt, the home of the African wild cat (Felis catus libyca), which resembles domestic tabby cats. The early Egyptians adopted cats enthusiastically, deifying them and prohibiting their export. After conversion to Christianity, Egyptians ceased worshiping cats, which were carried to all parts of the Roman Empire and thence to the rest of the world. Cats have been used for companionship and for rodent control.

Chickens (Gallus gallus), along with ducks and geese (from China, the Middle East, and Europe), turkeys (from North America), Muscovy ducks (from South America), and guinea fowl (from Africa) are avian species that have been domesticated. Chickens were probably derived from wild red junglefowl in southeast Asia before 2000 BCE. Cockfighting was an initial purpose for their domestication. They acquired religious significance and were also used for meat and feathers. Their selection for egg production followed. Because of improvements in breeding, feeding, and management, poultry meat production is increasing rapidly and is second to pork worldwide. Owning backyard chickens became popular in the twenty-first century, with people maintaining a small flock of birds on their property. In the past few centuries, two other avian species, ostriches (from Africa) and emus (from Australia), have been farmed, but it is probably incorrect to call them domesticated, as they have so far been little changed from their wild relatives.

Two insects have also been domesticated: honeybees and silkworms. Honeybees were domesticated shortly after the last ice age and were the primary source of dietary sweetener until two hundred years ago. They were also valuable for wax and venom, the latter for medicinal purposes. Silkworms, one of the ten varieties of silk-producing insects, were domesticated around 3000 BCE in China, producing fiber used in apparel.

Principal Term

Dominant Social Behavior: organization around a dominant leader, whom the rest of the group follows

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