Zoos

Ancient rulers maintained wild animal collections beginning about 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia (in the area that is now Iraq), China, and possibly the Indus Valley (now Pakistan). Collections of native and exotic wildlife were kept in royal parks. These parks were a combination protomenagerie, hunting reserve, and garden park. They were used for falconry, hunting wild beasts, entertaining guests, and personal pleasure. Animals kept in these parks often included elephants, wild bulls, lions, apes, ostriches, deer, gazelle, and ibex. Kings and other wealthy individuals also had fishponds, flight cages for birds, and household pets. Keepers and veterinarians were employed to care for these animals.

From around 2700 BCE, Egyptian pharaohs and wealthy Egyptians had animal collections as well. Native species were caught locally, and exotic species were obtained through commerce and tribute. Animals known to have been kept included lions, leopards, hyena, gazelle, ibex, baboons, giraffe, bears, and elephants. Exotic animals came from the so-called Divine Land (Palestine, Syria, and Mesopotamia), Nubia (on Egypt’s southern border), and Punt (the Ethiopia area).

In China, each ruling dynasty created animal reserves, beginning with the Shang dynasty, the first to unify the region, from about 1520 BCE. These royal parks were large, walled-in natural areas, where wild animals roamed freely and were maintained by park administrators, keepers, and veterinarians. Animals in these parks included fish, turtles, alligators, birds, camels, horses, yaks, deer, elephants, rhinoceroses, and possibly giant pandas.

Ancient and Medieval Animal Collections

The Greco-Roman societies, from 1100 BCE to 476 CE, were the next to evolve urban centers, overtaking the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations and their animal collections, while the Chinese society and collections continued separately from the Western world. Greek curiosity, travel, and trade were favorable for the development of animal collections; however, their ruling city-states did not have the wealth or influence to develop large collections. There were pets, temple collections with animals used in processionals, showmen and animal trainers with animals used in itinerant entertainment acts, and small collections featuring native animals, including the large ones such as bears and lions, that could still be found in the area.

The Roman Republic (509–27 BCE) provided its rulers and wealthy citizens with the opportunity to maintain small collections of native species. Among the first exotic animals seen in the Republic were Indian elephants taken in battle (280 BCE). Hunts and processionals, which began during the Republic period, evolved into increasingly elaborate spectacles during the Empire period (27 BCE–476 CE). Much has been made of these shows because of the large number of animals that were displayed and killed, but it is their appearances in these spectacles that reveal the introduction of exotic species to Rome. Unfortunately, little is known about the collections in which these animals were kept. Large collections kept in vivaria by emperors, municipalities, and military units likely supplied animals for the spectacles. Public entertainment also included itinerant performing animal acts. Private collections of native and exotic animals were kept in villa gardens, fresh and salt water ponds, bird enclosures, cages, parks, and hunting reserves.

Persian and Arabic societies between about 546 BCE and 1492 CE also had gardens containing wild animals. During this period, Persian and Arabic collections extended throughout the Middle East, India, Asia, northern Africa, and Spain. Meanwhile, medieval Europe (476–1453 CE) saw the fall of the Roman infrastructure and the rise of monarchies, monasteries, and municipalities. These centers of administrative, religious, and social life were also centers for medieval animal collections. Kings and wealthy barons kept elephants, lions, bears, camels, monkeys, and birds, especially falcons. Monasteries maintained modest collections for economic and aesthetic reasons. Towns had animals in moats (when no longer needed for defensive purposes), pits, and cages; they often kept animals used in their coat of arms, such as deer, lions, bears, and eagles.

Collections even existed in the Americas, although it is not known precisely when they began. Both the Aztecs of Central America and the Incas of South America had extensive animal collections. Montezuma’s estates, in what is now Mexico, included a large bird building, which included freshwater and saltwater ponds, as well as a staff of three hundred keepers. A separate collection combined birds of prey, reptiles, and mammals, along with its own staff of three hundred keepers. The Incas also had animal collections, along with domesticated herds of guanacos and vicuñas.

Early Modern Menageries

Europe emerged into its Renaissance period as the sixteenth century dawned. The accompanying age of exploration brought to light many new species from distant lands. The proliferation of sixteenth-century European animal collections was greatly influenced by these discoveries, increasing the collections in both size and number. Renaissance collections first developed in Italy, where the importation of animals from Asia and Africa was already well established, and then spread throughout Europe as the continental nation-states developed their own trade routes. Living animal collections, an essential part of royal courts, became commonplace among wealthy collectors. However, obtaining, shipping, and caring for wild, living animals was expensive and difficult, especially since little was known about the needs of the newly discovered species. Nevertheless, these new animals were status symbols and were of immense interest, and so the collections grew.

During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries these collections, known as menageries, developed throughout Europe and the European colonies. The earliest colonial menageries began as acclimatization farms and animal holding areas at colonial botanical stations located at the more important colonial posts. A tremendous increase in these stations occurred during the nineteenth century, as the exchange of plants and animals became commonplace.

As the nineteenth century advanced, menageries could be found worldwide, due to the intense interest in the many new species and the exotic places from which they came. Knowledge about these animals increased, and their transport was greatly improved. As a result, menageries evolved into zoological gardens during the early 1800s and aquariums developed in the mid-1800s.

Early Zoos and Aquariums

The establishment of the Zoological Society of London’s zoological garden at Regent’s Park in 1828 was a significant event in the history of animal collecting and may be considered a transition in the evolution of zoos. This collection was intended from its inception to surpass any then in existence, with an emphasis on education and research. Private European menageries evolved into public zoological gardens, going from collections for the few (royalty and wealthy collectors) to zoological gardens for all citizens. In the United States, exotic animals were first introduced in 1716 when a lion arrived in Boston. Other species were gradually introduced over the remainder of the eighteenth century, and menageries containing many species appeared toward the end of this century. Traveling and circus menageries became popular in the early 1800s.

A few small urban menageries were already established when the Zoological Society of Philadelphia (chartered in 1859) opened its zoological garden in 1874. Most of these urban menageries eventually closed, but a few, such as those at Lincoln Park in Chicago and Central Park in New York City, continued and eventually became modern zoological gardens. Throughout the rest of the world, menageries were developing into zoological gardens, although often hindered by local economies and politics.

Robert Warington and Philip H. Gosse first developed the modern aquarium during the early 1850s in England. Gosse also worked with the Zoological Society of London to establish the first public aquarium at the London Zoo in 1853. Other public aquariums, along with the home aquarium craze, swept Europe and the United States soon after.

The turn of the century brought about a tremendous increase in the number of zoos and, to a lesser extent, aquariums that lasted up through World War I. It was a period during which zoos and aquariums improved their programs in conservation, animal husbandry, research, and education. Beginning in the 1890s, conservation of wildlife became an important concern in the United States and other former and current European colonies. Europe had been dealing with conservation issues for many centuries, but these other regions saw their seemingly limitless resources quickly disappear. The New York Zoological Park (the Bronx Zoo), along with other United States zoos, played a significant role in conserving the American bison, which had become extinct in the wild. European zoos did likewise, saving the European bison (wisent), Père David’s deer, and Przewalski’s horse from extinction.

Animal husbandry research improved when the Penrose Research Laboratory opened at the Philadelphia Zoo around 1901. In situ field research began at the New York Zoological Park with the inception of its Department of Tropical Research in 1916. Exhibition techniques received further attention when Hagenbeck’s Tierpark in Stellingen, Germany, opened in 1907. This was an important event in the trend toward moated, open exhibits (rather than buildings), ecological exhibits (rather than systematic arrangements), and mixed species exhibits (rather than single-species exhibits). Hagenbeck’s Tierpark featured panorama exhibits based on zoogeographic themes, with a series of back-to-back moated displays designed in such a way that, from the visitor’s perspective, the animals appeared to be together in one space.

World War I affected zoos because of a loss of employees to the war effort, a loss of revenues to operate the facilities, a loss of paying visitors, difficulty in finding food for the animals, and a loss of some animals. After recovering from the social and economic impacts of this war, there was another surge in the number of zoos and aquariums up through World War II. As zoos and aquariums increased in numbers, the professional management of these institutions improved and became more organized.

During the 1930s, a studbook for the European wisent was established, the first of many species-specific wild animal studbooks. By 1997, there were 150 mammal, bird, and reptile international studbooks and world registers. In 1887, the Verband Deutscher ZooDirektoren (Association of German Zoo Directors) formed in Germany, the first of several early professional associations. In the United States, the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums (later the Association of Zoos and Aquariums) formed in 1924.

World War II repeated the problems faced during the previous war but to a much greater extent because, in addition to the previous problems, there was more physical destruction of European zoos. The physical, social, and economic damage from this war took longer to correct than did the first war’s. Improvements began in earnest as soon as the war ended, however, and the postwar period became a time of scientific advances, improved technology, better animal husbandry, new exhibit designs, improved education, more intense conservation programs, and professionalism.

Modern Zoos and Aquariums

Many new zoos and aquariums were built in the decades after World War II, and many older zoos and aquariums were renovated around this time. In addition, many advances were made in areas important to animal husbandry, such as veterinary medicine, chemical immobilization and transportation, animal nutrition, reproductive biology, conservation techniques, biotechnology, materials and exhibit design, and water management technology for aquariums.

Zoo staff training became more formal and systematic beginning in the 1950s. The work had become a profession, and the required knowledge had increased, making formal training a necessity. In 1959, a zoo school was established at the Wrocuaw Zoo, Poland, as well as at several German zoos in the 1960s and 1970s. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums published a zookeeper training manual in 1968 and began a series of training classes in 1975. In 1972, the first of several academic programs in zookeeper training began at the Santa Fe Community College in Gainesville, Florida.

Professional associations increased as well. The American Association of Zoo Veterinarians formed in 1946, the American Association of Zoo Keepers formed in 1967, and the Association of British Wild Animal Keepers was founded in 1972. Since then, several other segments of the zoo and aquarium workforce have formed professional associations.

Conservation efforts intensified as the seriousness of the endangered species problem increased. More attention was paid to endangered species and environmental problems in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly after activities were held at many zoos and aquariums for the first Earth Day on April 22, 1970. Government laws and regulations concerning endangered species and wildlife importation increased significantly during these decades as well. Conservation efforts at zoos and aquariums included the establishment of international and regional studbooks, regional species survival programs, taxon advisory groups, conservation assessment and management plans, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) species survival commission action plans, fauna interest groups, breeding consortia, scientific advisory groups, species survival plans, and conservation research studies at American zoos and aquariums.

Trends during the early twenty-first century include the development of more naturalistic exhibits, participation in in situ conservation research, development of frozen zoos, and the use of biotechnology to bring back extinct species. Increasing scientific recognition of animal consciousness and self-awareness has drawn criticism to the practice of keeping animals in captivity for human entertainment and education; however, this scientific understanding of animal consciousness has also brought major improvements to exhibition designs and training techniques. Many zoos place a new emphasis on promoting the psychological welfare of animals in captivity in addition to ensuring their physical well-being. Many zoos have invested in enrichment programs, which provide stimulation and entertainment to animals in captivity. However, despite improved efforts to replicate animals' natural environments, zoo exhibits often cover only a tiny fraction of animals' range in the wild. A greater understanding and appreciation of animal psychology has led to changes in breeding programs, in which zoo animals are moved cross-country to other zoos, in order to avoid the disruption of families or packs. Overall, zoos and aquariums have evolved significantly over the past five thousand years and continue to evolve to improve conservation efforts.

Pros and Cons of Zoos

Zoos, particularly in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, have often been controversial, drawing both support and criticism from various sources. Proponents of zoos claim that they serve multiple purposes, including valuable scientific research, conservation and protection of rare and endangered species, education and outreach, and public awareness and appreciation for animals. Indeed, many prominent zoos around the world champion wildlife research and environmentalism efforts, and captive animal specimens have proved important to breeding programs for threatened species. Most large zoos are highly regulated and have adopted policies to provide animals with as natural a habitat as possible while providing humane treatment according to ethical guidelines. Unlike in former times, zoos generally maintain a population of captive-bred animals rather than individuals taken from the wild, reducing the negative impact on natural ecosystems.

However, opponents of zoos counter many of these claims. Some argue that it is unethical to keep any animal captive and all zoos and aquariums should be disbanded. Others suggest that, despite even the best intentions, zoos are typically driven by economic concerns centered on the entertainment value of animals and that conservation and research programs are only secondary. This conflict of interest could allegedly keep zoos from truly serving the best interests of the captive animals. Even when zoos install open-range habitats and take other measures to approximate life in the wild, the space and conditions are never identical to an animal's native habitat (especially when the zoo is located in a climate radically different from the native habitat), and critics claim that this negatively impacts many species. Studies have suggested that various health problems, including psychological stress, can impact captive animals and cause altered behavior and even shortened lifespans. Critics of zoos especially target small roadside zoos, which often lack well-equipped facilities, as well as zoos in countries that lack strong regulations and animal rights protections.

The mid-2010s saw something of a shift in public opinion against animal captivity, and though zoos remained popular attractions, several organizations responded with major policy changes. In 2016, the popular Florida aquarium SeaWorld announced it would stop breeding captive orcas, or killer whales, for performances after the 2013 documentary film Blackfish drew widespread negative attention to the consequences of keeping orcas in captivity. The same year, the US Department of Agriculture banned the practice of allowing visitors to interact directly with lion, tiger, and other big cat cubs. Though popular and a significant source of income for roadside zoos, the practice was found to negatively affect the cubs' development. Also in 2016, a three-year-old child climbed into an enclosure at the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, where he was subsequently grabbed by a Western lowland gorilla named Harambe. A zookeeper then shot and killed Harambe in order to rescue the child. The incident was captured on film that was widely distributed on social media and news outlets, drawing sharp criticism of the zoo's enclosure design in particular and of the dangers and ethics of keeping wild animals in close proximity to humans in general. A similar incident occurred in 2019, in which a toddler was seriously injured after falling into a rhinoceros enclosure at Florida's Brevard Zoo.

The COVID-19 pandemic also had a significant impact on zoos across the US and internationally in the early 2020s, as most suffered financially due to closures caused by the pandemic. Many zoo and aquarium operators had to come up with new and creative ways of reaching the public, including the use of virtual programming and other technology ventures. When zoos reopened, animals had to readjust to having visitors there. Furthermore, some animals contracted the COVID-19 virus themselves, causing the widespread distribution of coronavirus vaccines among zoo animals.

Some countries responded to shifting public opinions by enacting bans on holding animals in captivity. For instance, in 2013 Costa Rica passed a law banning wildlife in captivity, which resulted in the closure of all state-run zoos in the country. Though such closures were delayed by various legal appeals, the final two public zoos in Costa Rica were closed in 2024.

Principal Terms

aquarium: self-contained aquatic environmental exhibits, maintained either independently or in association with a zoo

ex situ: conservation and research out of the animal’s natural environment (at a zoo)

frozen zoo: frozen tissue bank maintained at a zoo that contains wild animal tissue and reproductive samples for use in future breeding programs

in situ: conservation and research in the animal’s natural habitat

menagerie: a French word for zoos first used in the early 1700s to describe the keeping (and later exhibition) of animals

vivaria: a Latin word for a structure housing living animals, first used by the Romans to describe the places holding elephants and other animals for their shows

zoo: an English abbreviation of the term “zoological garden”; first used in the early 1800s to describe early British zoos, it tended to replace the word menagerie in the 1900s

Bibliography

Bekoff, Marc. “Why Was Harambe the Gorilla in a Zoo in the First Place?” Scientific American, 31 May 2016, www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-was-harambe-the-gorilla-in-a-zoo-in-the-first-place/. Accessed 14 Oct. 2016.

Bell, Catharine, editor. Encyclopedia of the World’s Zoos. Dearborn, 2001.

Croke, Vicki. The Modern Ark: The Story of Zoos, Past, Present, and Future. Scribner’s, 1997.

Downes, Azzedine, and Jane Goodall. “Jane Goodall, Azzedine Downs Together Offer Thoughts on Tragic Harambe Killing.” International Fund for Animal Welfare, IFAW, 19 June 2016, www.ifaw.org/united-states/news/jane-goodall-azzedine-downs-together-offer-thoughts-tragic-harambe-killing. Accessed 14 Oct. 2016.

Hakberstadt, Alex. “Zoo Animals and Their Discontents.” The New York Times, 3 July 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/07/03/opinion/zoo-animals-and-their-discontents.html. Accessed 23 June 2015.

Hoage, R. J., and William A. Deiss, editors. New Worlds, New Animals: From Menagerie to Zoological Park in the Nineteenth Century. Johns Hopkins UP, 1996.

Jiménez, Jesus. “After Outlawing Public Zoos, Costa Rica Relocates Hundreds of Animals.” The New York Times, 15 May 2024, www.nytimes.com/2024/05/15/world/americas/costa-rica-zoo-closing.html. Accessed 3 July 2024.

Kisling, Vernon N., Jr., editor. Zoo and Aquarium History: Ancient Animal Collections to Zoological Gardens. CRC, 2001.

Marris, Emma. “Modern Zoos Are Not Worth the Moral Cost.” The New York Times, 11 June 2021, www.nytimes.com/2021/06/11/opinion/zoos-animal-cruelty.html. Accessed 22 June 2023.

Milman, Oliver. “Sanctuaries or Showbiz? What’s the Future of Zoos.” The Guardian, 23 Mar. 2016, www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/mar/23/sanctuaries-or-showbiz-whats-the-future-of-zoos. Accessed 5 Apr. 2016.

Milman, Oliver. “US Government Cracks Down on Letting Zoo Visitors Play with Lion and Tiger Cubs.” The Guardian, 5 Apr. 2016, www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/apr/05/us-government-cracks-down-on-letting-zoo-visitors-play-with-lion-and-tiger-cubs. Accessed 5 Apr. 2016.

Nield, David. “When the Pandemic Came, the Zoos Closed, and the Animals Began to Act Differently.” Science Alert, 9 Sept. 2022, www.sciencealert.com/when-the-pandemic-came-the-zoos-closed-and-the-animals-began-to-act-differently. Accessed 22 June 2023.

Norton, Bryan G., Michael Hutchins, Elizabeth F. Stevens, and Terry L. Maple, editors. Ethics on the Ark: Zoos, Animal Welfare, and Wildlife Conservation. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.

Owen, David. “Bears Do It: But Pandas in Captivity Often Won’t.” The New Yorker, 2 Sept. 2013, www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/bears-do-it-but-pandas-in-captivity-often-wont. Accessed 23 June 2015.

Smith, Laura. “Zoos Drive Animals Crazy.” Slate, 20 June 2014, www.slate.com/articles/health‗and‗science/science/2014/06/zoos‗drive‗animals‗crazy‗humans‗are‗bad‗stewards‗for‗wildlife.html. Accessed 23 June 2015.

Wemmer, Christen M., editor. The Ark Evolving: Zoos and Aquariums in Transition. Smithsonian Institution Conservation and Research Center, 1995.