Buddhist art and architecture

Buddhist art and architecture usually depict figures such as the Buddha, religious entities, bodhisattvas, and narrative scenes from the lives of important figures within Buddhism. Graphic aids such as mandalas and physical objects such as bells and vajras (a type of scepter) are often included in the art, as well. This form of art began with the establishment of Buddhism in the sixth to fifth century BCE. Since then, it has spread throughout many areas in Asia and the rest of the world.

History

Buddhism and its art changed along with each country that it spread to. In India, Buddhist art was particularly popular, and Buddhist themes were often featured in Hindu art as well as Jain art. Areas in India have cave complexes that house temples where Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain art are all intertwined. In India, prior to the first century BCE, the Buddha was never depicted in human form and could only be shown through symbolism. During this early phase, known as the pre-iconic phase, there were no anthropomorphic depictions of the Buddha.

In the Iconic phase, beginning in the first century CE, depictions of the Buddha started to take human form in Northern India. There were two main areas where this took place, Gandhara and Mathura. Art from Gandhara was greatly influenced by Greek culture after Alexander the Great conquered parts of northwestern India in the fourth century BCE, forming what is known as the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The mingling of these two cultures resulted in the tradition of Greco-Buddhist art. Greek influence can clearly be seen in art from this area, and the Gandharan school was one of the first to include elements such as nirvana symbols, shoes and sandals, drapery, and realistic hair. The Greeks might have also passed on the idea of a "man-god" that was inspired by their mythology.

Mathuran art is based on traditional Indian art and included figures such as yaksas, or nature spirits, though the style later developed and included images of the Buddha. This school added elements such as muslin, the lotus seat, and the wheel on the palm. These two schools were in contact within one another and greatly influenced one another, though it is unknown whether the depiction of the Buddha in human form in Mathuran art was because of Greek influence or an independent evolution of the style. Realistic idealism was the basis behind iconic art, as it included realistic proportions and human features. This idealism tried to capture the serenity and perfection of the religion.

Buddhism continued to spread throughout the Asian world, and by the first century CE, it had led to significant changes in art and religious practices. There were two routes established. The northern route was influenced by Mahayana Buddhism and included Central Asia, Bhutan, China, Korea, and Nepal. The southern route was influenced by Theravada Buddhism and included Laos, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

The Silk Road was an integral part of the spreading of Buddhism, especially through Central Asia and China. Later the religion would spread toward Korea and Japan. During the second century CE, many Buddhist monks journeyed to China and Central Asia as a result of the expansion of the Kushan Empire, which at its height stretched from northwestern India to northwestern China and encompassed most of modern-day Afghanistan. The missionaries also greatly influenced Buddhist art along the Silk Road. In the Tarim Basin of Serindia, a region of western China later known as Xinjiang, a distinctive form of Buddhist art developed between the second and eleventh centuries CE. It combined the Greco-Roman and Indian influences of Gandharan art with the Chinese artistic tradition.

Overview

In Afghanistan, Buddhism was one of the main religions before the introduction of Islam during the seventh century CE. Sculptures made of schist, clay, or stucco were extremely common and often depicted the Buddha. Their Buddhist artistic tradition, like many in the area, had both Indian and Greco-Roman influences. Following the region’s adoption of Islam, Buddhism was all but eradicated. During the Taliban regime, much of the Buddhist art in the area was destroyed, as were many museum artifacts. Perhaps most devastating was the loss of the world’s largest standing Buddhas, the Buddhas of Bamiyan, which were constructed in the sixth century. Following the Taliban’s loss of power in late 2001, efforts have been made to preserve what remains of Afghanistan’s Buddhist art heritage.

Central Asia, at the junction of China, Persia, and India, was the meeting place for multiple cultures and art forms throughout history. The Silk Road was also essential to the connection of these areas and the influence of Buddhist art. There were a number of Buddhist monasteries and stupas along the route that served as a way to assist travelers and traders along the Silk Road. Serindian art was extremely popular in Central Asia. This included reliefs and wall paintings in caves, sculptures, ritual objects, paintings on canvas, and scriptures.

In China, Buddhist art first flourished in the Six Dynasties period (220–589), and initially tended toward the symbolic and abstract. This style, which can be seen in the Longmen Grottoes in Henan and Bingling Temple in Gansu, continued through the sixth century CE. In the Tang Dynasty (618–906), Chinese Buddhist art became more naturalistic and lifelike. During this period, Buddhist temples and shrines spread across the country, and the belief that commissioning Buddhist artwork would lead to spiritual rewards encouraged the growth of the Chinese Buddhist artistic tradition. However, during the Five Dynasties period following the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism was harshly suppressed, and as a result, many works of Tang Buddhist art and architecture were destroyed. Buddhism went through several more cycles of popularity followed by persecution over the course of Chinese history.

Chinese Buddhist art depicted not only the Buddha, but a large pantheon of bodhisattvas, most of whom had Indian precedents, although some were native to China. One of Chinese art’s major contributions to Buddhist iconography was the depiction of the Bodhisattva of Compassion, Avalokiteshvara or Guanyin, as a woman, though in India the deity had always been portrayed as male. The female incarnation eventually became the better-known version in many countries.

The Buddhist art in Korea combines the influences of a number of different cultures with a distinct Korean style. The Three Kingdoms of Korea—Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla—officially recognized Buddhism as a religion in 372 CE, though it was a part of the culture long before that, and the patronage of the ruling classes spurred a growth in Buddhist art, particularly sculpture. Sculptures ranged from the large icons displayed in temples to small figures for home display or use in a personal shrine. Baekje Buddhist sculptures, known for their serene expressions, were especially distinctive.

Temple-building, largely sponsored by the state, was also popular during this time, and Baekje architects were in high demand. The Mireuksa Temple, the largest in the Baekje kingdom, was a result of one of these projects, sponsored by King Mu, who ruled from 600 to 641, and his wife Queen Seonhwa. Many of these temples also included a large pagoda, and some were nine stories tall. This style greatly shaped the Japanese styles, which borrowed many elements and designs from the Baekje art and architecture.

By the fifth century CE, Buddhism had reached Burma (modern Myanmar), although the oldest Buddhist temples, relief carvings, and sculptures in the region only date back to the tenth or eleventh century. Burmese Buddhists developed a unique cylindrical form for their stupas (monuments housing sacred relics), which was thought to represent a closed lotus bud. Until the fourteenth century, most Buddhist sculpture in the region was in the form of carved reliefs backed by stele (inscribed stone slabs). During the Ava period (ca. 1287–1752), it became most common for sculptures to be carved in the round, and the earlier stele-backed reliefs were rarely seen. The sculptures were most commonly carved of marble. Earlier Burmese art depicted the Buddha in a number of poses and situations, but by the nineteenth century, it had become tradition to depict the Buddha seated on a lotus throne and touching the earth with his right hand, and other poses were hardly ever seen. Burma also developed a tradition, frowned upon by mainstream Theravada Buddhism, of depicting the Buddha crowned and clad in kingly attire. Statues depicting the Buddha in such a manner are known as Jambupati Buddhas.

Japan was not introduced to Buddhism until the sixth century CE, when missionaries visited the island with art and writings from the religion. Once it adopted Buddhism, Japan served as the perfect location to preserve much of the Buddhist culture because of its isolated location. Many temples were built in Nara, which was then the capital city, and painting and sculpture flourished. The art carried influences from Korea, Greco-Roman culture, India, and China. Zen art became extremely popular during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. This included the use of sumi-e (monochrome ink) paintings and haiku as an impressionistic and often symbolic way to express religious and philosophical views. The tea ceremony was also developed during this time as a form of meditation, along with martial arts. Buddhism remains one of Japan’s dominant religions, along with Shintoism.

In the twenty-first century, Buddhist art has continued to be created across Asia and, to a lesser extent, in other parts of the world. In addition to ritual objects and art for display in temples or for personal devotional purposes, there are many works by contemporary artists whose Buddhist faith influences their art. However, modern Buddhist art is less often studied academically than historical Buddhist art. Many countries have taken care to preserve their historical Buddhist art and architecture, and larger statues, such as the towering stone Buddha statues found across China and Japan, frequently serve as tourist destinations, as do temples. Mireuksa Temple, for example, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Bibliography

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