Buddhism

Overview

Buddhism has three main branches: Theravada (Way of the Elders), also referred to as Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle); Mahayana (Greater Vehicle); and Vajrayana (Diamond Vehicle), also referred to as Tantric Buddhism. Vajrayana is sometimes thought of as an extension of Mahayana Buddhism. These can be further divided into numerous sects and schools, many of which are geographically based. In Buddhism, these different divisions or schools are regarded as alternative paths to enlightenment.

Number of Adherents Worldwide: An estimated 500 million people around the world are Buddhists, about 6 percent of the world's population, according to a 2017 report by the Pew Research Center. Of the major sects, Theravada Buddhism is the oldest, developed in the sixth century BCE. It is the majority religion in southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. From Mahayana Buddhism, which developed in the third to second centuries BCE, came several offshoots based on location: In China, Chan Buddhism developed in the sixth century (becoming Zen in Japan) and Pure Land Buddhism became widely practiced as well, along with many other schools. About 18 percent of China's population practices Buddhism. In Japan, Zen Buddhism developed in the twelfth century, Nichiren Buddhism developed a century later, and Soka Gakkai was founded in 1937. About 36 percent of Japan's population practices Buddhism. The four branches of Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) evolved beginning around the seventh century. In the twentieth century, Buddhism began migrating to the West, with significant pockets of adherents in Europe and North America. Buddhism is also the dominant religion in countries including Bhutan, Myanmar, Cambodia, Tibet, and Sri Lanka.

Basic Tenets: Buddhists believe that all conditioned phenomena are characterized by "three marks of existence": impermanence, lack of an inherent, unchanging self, and suffering or unsatisfactoriness. These truths encompass the ideas that all things are impermanent and changing, and that this causes life to be unsatisfying for unenlightened beings. Buddhism also teaches the Four Noble Truths: (1) Suffering (dukkha) is an inherent part of life. (2) Desire and attachment cause suffering (samudaya). (3) Letting go of attachment ends suffering and leads to release (nirodha). (4) This letting go and release comes through following the Noble Eightfold Path—right understanding, right intention, right speech, right conduct, right occupation, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Although Buddhists do not believe in an afterlife as such, they generally recognize the eternal cycle of death and rebirth (samsara), a basic tenet of most Eastern religions. Following the Noble Eightfold Path leads to the accumulation of good karma, allowing one to be reborn at a higher level. Karma is the Buddhist belief in cause-and-effect relationships; actions have consequences, both in this life and in future lives. The ultimate spiritual goal of Buddhism is to end the cycle of death and rebirth by achieving nirvana, the result of the deepest understanding of the Four Noble Truths.

Buddhism is a nontheistic religion, meaning a god or gods are not part of the teachings. Salvation is to be found in following the teachings of the Buddha, which are called the Dharma (law or truth). Mahayana Buddhism does have saint-like bodhisattvas (enlightened beings) who reject ultimate enlightenment (nirvana) for themselves in order to aid others.

Sacred Text: Buddhism has no single-volume scripture comparable to the Qur’an in Islam or the Bible in Christianity. The main body of scripture for Theravada Buddhists is the Pāli Canon, the oldest collection of the Buddha’s teachings, which encompasses many volumes. Mahayana Buddhists recorded their version of these as sutras, many of them in verse. The Lotus Sutra is among the most important. The sutras were first recorded in Sanskrit and later translated into Chinese.

Major Figures: Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 563 to 483 BCE) is the founder of Buddhism and regarded as the Buddha or Supreme Buddha. He is the central historical figure in Buddhism. He had two principle disciples: Sariputta (or Sariputra) and Moggallana (or Maudgalyayana). In contemporary Buddhism, the Tibetan Buddhist leader known as the fourteenth Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, has perhaps the highest public profile globally. Both he and Aung San Suu Kyi, a Buddhist of Myanmar who was held as a political prisoner for many years before being allowed into the government, have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

Major Holy Sites: Buddhist holy sites are located in several places in Asia. All of those directly related to the life of Siddhartha Gautama are located in the northern part of India near Nepal. Lumbini Grove is noted as the birthplace of the Buddha. He attained enlightenment at Bodh Gaya and first began to teach in Sarnath. Kusinara is the city where he died.

In other Asian nations, some Buddhist holy sites were once dedicated to other religions. Angkor Wat in Cambodia, for example, was constructed for the Hindu god Vishnu in the twelfth century CE. It became a Buddhist temple three hundred years later. It was once the largest religious monument in the world and still attracts many visitors. In the central highlands of Java, Indonesia, sits Borobudur, the world’s largest Buddhist shrine. Its five terraces represent what must be overcome to reach enlightenment: worldly desires, evil intent, malicious joy, laziness, and doubt. It was built in the eighth and ninth centuries CE, only to fall into neglect around the turn of the millennium; it was rediscovered in 1815. The complex has three miles of carvings illustrating the life and teachings of the Buddha. In Sri Lanka, the Temple of the Tooth, which houses what is believed to be one of the Buddha’s teeth, is a popular pilgrimage site.

Some of the holy sites incorporate gifts of nature. China has four sacred Buddhist mountains, symbolizing the four corners of the universe. These mountains—Wǔtái Shān, Éméi Shān, Jiǔhuá Shān, and Pǔtuó Shān—are believed to be the homes of bodhisattvas. In central India outside Fardapur, there are twenty-nine caves carved into the granite, most of them with frescoes based on the Buddha’s life. Ajanta, as the site is known, was created between 200 BCE and the fifth century CE. Five of the caves house temples.

Major Holidays: The Buddha’s birthday, the day of his death, and the day of his enlightenment are all celebrated, either as one day or several, in a holiday most commonly known as Vesak. Different traditions and countries have their own additional celebrations, including Sri Lanka’s Festival of the Tooth. Buddhists have a lunar calendar, and four days of each month are regarded as holy days.

Origins

History and Geography: Buddhism began in what is now southern Nepal and northern India with the enlightenment of the Buddha. Following his death, members of the sangha, or community, spread the teachings across northern India. The First Buddhist Council took place in 486 BCE at Rajagaha. This council settled the Buddhist canon, the Tipitaka (appearing in the Theravada tradition as the Pali Canon). In 386 BCE, a little more than a century after the Buddha died, a second Buddhist Council was held at Vesali. It was at this meeting that the first of many schisms in Buddhism occurred.

Emperor Asoka, who ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from around 268 to 232 BCE, converted to Buddhism. He sent missionaries across India and into central parts of Asia. He also set up pillars with Buddhist messages in his own efforts to establish "true dharma" in the kingdom, although he did not create a state church. His desire for his subjects to live contently in this life led to promoting trade, maintaining canals and reservoirs, and the founding of a system of medical care for both humans and animals. Asoka’s son Mahinda went to southern Indian and to Sri Lanka with the message of Buddhism.

Asoka’s empire fell shortly after his death. Under the following dynasties, evidence suggests Buddhists in India experienced persecution. The religion continued to grow, however, and during the first centuries CE, monasteries and monuments were constructed with support from local rulers. Some additional support came from women within the royal courts. Monastic centers also grew in number. By the fourth century CE, Buddhism had become one of the chief religious traditions in India.

During the Gupta Dynasty, which lasted from about 320 to 600 CE, Buddhists and Hindus began enriching each other’s traditions. Some Hindus felt that the Buddha was an incarnation of Vishnu, a Hindu god. Some Buddhists showed respect for Hindu deities.

Also during this era, Mahavihara, the concept of the "Great Monastery," came to be. These institutions served as universities for the study and development of Buddhist thinking. Some of them also included cultural and scientific study in the curriculum.

Traders and missionaries took the ideas of Buddhism to China. By the first century CE, Buddhism was established in that country. In India, the religion later died out or was absorbed into Hinduism. By the seventh century, a visiting Chinese monk found that Huns had invaded India from Central Asia and destroyed many Buddhist monasteries. The religion revived and flourished in the northeast part of India for several centuries.

Muslim invaders reached India in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. They sacked the monasteries, some of which had grown very wealthy. Some even paid workers to care for both the land they owned and the monks, while some had indentured slaves. Because Buddhism had become monastic rather than a religion of the laity, there was no groundswell for renewal following the Muslim invasion.

Prominent in eastern and Southeast Asia, Buddhism is the national religion in some countries. For example, in Thailand, everyone learns about Buddhism in school. Buddhism did not begin to reach Western culture until the nineteenth century, when the Lotus Sutra was translated into German. The first Buddhist temple in the United States was built in 1853 in San Francisco’s Chinatown.

Chinese Communists took control of Tibet in 1950. Nine years later, the fourteenth Dalai Lama left for India, fearing persecution. The Dalai Lama is considered a living teacher (lama) who is to instruct others. (The term dalai means "great as the ocean.") In 1989, he received the Nobel Peace Prize.

Buddhism experienced a revival in India during the twentieth century. Although some of this new beginning was due in part to Tibetan immigrants seeking safety, a mass conversion in 1956 was the major factor. The year was chosen to honor the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha’s death year. Buddhism was chosen as an alternative to the strict caste structure of Hinduism, and hundreds of thousands of people of the Dalit caste, once known as untouchables, converted in a ceremony held in Nagpur.

Founder or Major Prophet: Siddhartha Gautama, who became known as the "Enlightened One," or Buddha, was a prince in what is now southern Nepal, but was then northern India during the sixth century BCE. The name Siddhartha means "he who achieves his aim." He was a member of the Sakya tribe of Nepal, belonging to the warrior caste. Many legends have grown around his birth and early childhood. One states that he was born in a grove in the woods, emerging from his mother’s side able to walk and completely clean.

During Siddhartha’s childhood, a Brahmin, or wise man, prophesied that he would grow to be a prince or a religious teacher who would help others overcome suffering. Because the life of a sage involved itinerant begging, the king did not want this life for his child. He kept Siddhartha in the palace and provided him with all the luxuries of his position, including a wife, Yashodhara. They had a son, Rahula.

Escaping from the palace at about the age of thirty, Gautama first encountered suffering in the form of an old man with a walking stick. The following day, he saw a man who was ill. On the third day, he witnessed a funeral procession. Finally, he met a monk, who had nothing, but who radiated happiness. He determined to leave his privileged life, an act called the Great Renunciation. Because hair was a sign of vanity in his time, he shaved his head. He looked for enlightenment via an ascetic life of little food or sleep. He followed this path for six years, nearly starving to death. Eventually, he settled on a Middle Way, a path neither luxurious as he had known in the palace, nor ascetic as he had attempted afterward. After three days and nights of meditating under a fig tree at Bodh Gaya, Siddhartha achieved his goal of enlightenment, or nirvana, by finally overcoming the clinging that leads to suffering.

The Buddha began his preaching career, which spanned some forty years, following his enlightenment. He gave his first sermon in northeast India at Sarnath in a deer park. The first five followers became the first Buddhist community, or sangha. The Buddha died around age eighty, in approximately 483 BCE. During his final illness, he meditated until he died.

Buddhists believe in many enlightened ones. Siddhartha is in one tradition regarded as the fourth buddha, while other traditions hold him to have been the seventh or twenty-fifth buddha.

His disciples, who took the Buddha's ideas throughout India, repeated his teachings. When the later Buddhists determined to write down the teachings of the Buddha, they met to discuss the ideas and agreed that a second meeting should occur in a century. At the third council, which was held at Pataliputta, divisions occurred. The two major divisions—Theravada and Mahayana—differ over the texts to be used and the interpretation of the teachings. Theravada can be translated as "the Teachings of the Elders," while Mahayana means "Great Vehicle."

Theravada Buddhists place more emphasis on personal liberation as the goal of practice, while the Mahayana tradition emphasizes the Bodhisattva ideal of trying to save others. In very general terms, while both traditions share the same core tenets, Theravada is a more conservative, scholarly tradition, while Mahayana promotes compassionate action in the world.

Philosophical Basis: During Siddhartha’s lifetime, Vedic religion, or ancient Hinduism, was the predominant religion in India. Many people, especially in northern India, were dissatisfied with the rituals and sacrifices of that religion. In addition, as many small kingdoms expanded and the unity of the tribes began to break down, many people were in religious turmoil and doubt. A number of new religious movements therefore developed.

The Hindu belief in the cycle of death and rebirth led some people to despair because they could not escape from suffering in their lives or future lives. Siddhartha was trying to find a more satisfactory resolution for the basic problem of suffering he saw in the world.

In northeast India at Bodh Gaya, he rested under a fig tree that came to be known as the Bodhi Tree. He meditated there until he achieved nirvana, or complete enlightenment, resulting in an end to suffering and the cycle of death and rebirth. As a result of his being enlightened, he was known as Buddha, a Sanskrit word meaning "awakened one." Wanting to help others, he began teaching his Four Noble Truths, along with the Noble Eightfold Path that would lead people to freedom from desire and suffering. He encouraged his followers to take refuge in the Three Precious Jewels (or Triple Gem): the Buddha, the dharma (the teachings), and the sangha (the community of enlightened ones). Although at first the Buddha was uncertain about including women in the sangha, he was persuaded to allow women to ordain and become his followers too—one of many radical departures in Buddhism from contemporary Indian religion.

Greed, hatred, and ignorance were three basic traits (the "three poisons") that Buddha felt people needed to overcome. All three create craving, the root of suffering. Greed and ignorance lead to a desire for things that are not needed, while hatred leads to a craving to destroy the hated object or person.

To the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path, early devotees of Buddhism added the Five Precepts. These are to avoid taking drugs and alcohol, engaging in sexual misconduct, harming living beings, stealing, and lying.

The teachings of the Buddha were not written down for centuries, but were transmitted orally. The first written text did not appear for more than 400 years after the death of the Buddha, when the Pali Canon was written down on palm leaves in Sri Lanka. The Pali Canon is divided into three collections or baskets ("pitaka" means basket; hence, Tipitaka or Three Baskets). The three baskets include the rules for monastics to follow (the Basket of Discipline, or Vinaya Pitaka), the Buddha’s teachings (the Basket of Discourse, or Sutta Pitaka), and the commentaries (the Basket of Special Doctrine, or Abhidamma Pitaka).

Holy Places: Buddhists make pilgrimages to places that relate to important events in the Buddha's life. While Lumbini Grove, the place of Siddhartha’s birth, is a prominent pilgrimage site, the primary site for pilgrimage is Bodh Gaya, the location where Buddha attained enlightenment. Other pilgrimage sites include Sarnath, the deer park located in what is now Varanasi (Benares) where the Buddha first began to teach, and Kusinara, the city where he died. All of these are in the northern part of India near Nepal.

Other sites in Asia that honor various bodhisattvas have also become pilgrimage destinations. Mountains are often chosen; there are four in China, each with monasteries and temples built on them. In Japan, the Shikoku pilgrimage covers more than seven hundred miles and involves visits to eighty-eight temples along the route.

Buddhism in Depth

Sacred Symbols: Many stylized statue poses of the Buddha exist, each with a different significance. One, in which the Buddha has both hands raised, palms facing outward, commemorates the calming of an elephant about to attack the Buddha. If only the right hand is raised, the hand symbolizes friendship and being unafraid. The teaching gesture is that of a hand with the thumb and first finger touching.

In Tibetan Buddhism, the teachings of the Buddha regarding the cycle of rebirth are symbolized in the six-spoke wheel of life. One may be reborn into any of the six realms of life: hell, hungry spirits, warlike demons called Asuras, animals, humans, or gods. Another version of the wheel has eight spokes rather than six, to represent the Noble Eightfold Path. Still another wheel has twelve spokes, signifying both the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.

Tibetan Buddhists have prayer beads similar to a rosary, with 108 beads representing the number of desires to be overcome prior to reaching enlightenment. The worshipper repeats the Triple Refuge—Buddha, dharma, and sangha—as a mantra.

The prayer wheel is another device that Tibetan Buddhists use. Inside the wheel is a roll of paper on which the sacred mantra—Hail to the jewel in the lotus—is written many times. The lotus is a symbol of growing spiritually; it grows in muddied waters, but with the stems and flowers, it reaches toward the sun. By turning the wheel and spinning the mantra, the practitioner spreads blessings. Bells may be rung to wake the hearer out of ignorance.

In Tantric Buddhism (or Vajrayana), the mandala, or circle, serves as a map of the entire cosmos. Mandalas may be made of colored grains of sand, carved, or painted. They are used to help in meditation and are thought to have a spiritual energy.

Buddhism recognizes Eight Auspicious Symbols, including the banner, conch shell, fish, knot, lotus, treasure vase, umbrella, and wheel. Each has a particular significance. A conch shell, for example, is often blown to call worshipers to meetings. Because its sound travels far, it signifies the voice of Buddha traveling throughout the world. Fish are fertility symbols because they have thousands of offspring. In Buddhist imagery, they are often in facing pairs and fashioned of gold. The lotus represents spiritual growth, rooted in muddy water but flowering toward the sun. The umbrella symbolizes protection because servants once used them to protect royalty from both sun and rain.

Sacred Practices and Gestures: Two major practices characterize Buddhism: gift-giving and showing respect to images and relics of the Buddha. The first is the transaction between laity and monastics, in which laypersons present offerings to the monks and nuns, who in return share the Buddha's teachings with the laity. Although Buddhist monastics are permitted to own very little, they each have a begging bowl in which to collect food.

With variations according to tradition, Buddhists venerate statues of the Buddha, bodhisattvas, and saints; they also show respect to his relics, housed in stupas. When in the presence of a statue of the Buddha, worshipers often have a series of movements they repeat three times, thus dedicating their movements to the Triple Gem. It begins with a dedicated body: placing hands together with the palms cupped slightly and fingers touching, the devotee raises the hands to the forehead. The second step symbolizes right speech by lowering the hands to just below the mouth. In the third movement, the hands are lowered to the front of the chest, indicating that heart—and by extension, mind—are also dedicated to the Triple Gem. The final movement is prostration. The devotee first gets on all fours, then lowers either the entire body to the floor or lowers the head so that there are five points of contact with the floor.

Statues of the Buddha give a clue to the gestures held important to his followers (hand gestures are known as mudras). The gesture of turning the hand towards the ground indicates that one is observing Earth. Devotees assume a lotus position, with legs crossed, when in meditation.

Allowing the left hand to rest in the lap and the right hand to point down to Earth is a gesture used in meditation. Another common gesture is to touch thumb and fingertips together while the palms of both hands face up, thus forming a flat triangular shape. The triangle signifies the Three Jewels of Buddhism.

Food Restrictions: Buddhism does not require one to be a vegetarian. Many followers do not eat meat, however, because to do so involves killing other creatures. Monastics typically may not eat after noon, and may only eat food offered by laypersons.

Rites, Celebrations, and Services: Ancient Buddhism recognized four holy days each month, known as uposatha. These days included the full moon and new moon days of each lunar month, as well as the eighth day after each of these moons appeared. Both monks and members of the laity have special religious duties during these four days. A special service takes place in which flowers are offered to images of the Buddha, precepts are repeated, and a sermon is preached. On these four days, an additional three precepts may be undertaken along with the five regularly observed. The three extra duties are to refrain from sleeping on a luxurious bed, eating any food after noon, and adorning the body or going to entertainments.

In Theravada nations, three major life events of the Buddha—birth, enlightenment, and entering nirvana—are celebrated on Vesak, or Buddha Day. In temples, statues of Buddha as a child are ceremonially cleaned. Worshipers may offer incense and flowers. To symbolize the Buddha’s enlightenment, lights may be illuminated in trees and temples. Because it is a day of special kindness, some people in Thailand refrain from farm work that could harm living creatures. They may also seek special merit by freeing captive animals.

Other Buddhist nations that follow Mahayana Buddhism commemorate these events on three different days. In Japan, Hana Matsuri is the celebration of Buddha’s birth. On that day, people create paper flower gardens to recall the gardens of Lumbini, Siddhartha’s birthplace. Worshipers also pour perfumed tea over statues of Buddha; this is because, according to tradition, the gods provided scented water for Siddhartha’s first bath.

Poson is celebrated in Sri Lanka to honor the coming of Buddhism during the reign of Emperor Asoka. Other holy persons are also celebrated in the countries where they had the greatest influence. In Tibet, for instance, the arrival of Padmasambhava, who brought Buddhism to that nation, is observed.

Buddhists also integrate their own special celebrations into regular harvest festivals and New Year activities. These festivities may include a performance of an event in the life of any buddha or bodhisattva. For example, troupes of actors in Tibet specialize in enacting Buddhist legends. The festival of the Sacred Tooth is held in Kandy, Sri Lanka. According to one legend, a tooth of Buddha has been recovered, and it is paraded through the streets on this day. The tooth has been placed in a miniature stupa, or sealed mound, which is carried on an elephant’s back.

Protection rituals have been common in Buddhism from the earliest days. They may be public rituals meant to avoid a collective danger, such as those held in Sri Lanka and other Southeast Asia nations. Or they may be designed for private use. The role of these rituals is greater in Mahayana tradition, especially in Tibet. Mantras are chanted for this reason.

Customs surrounding death and burial differ between traditions and nations. A common factor, however, is the belief that the thoughts of a person at death are significant. This period may be extended for three days following death, due to a belief in consciousness for that amount of time after death. To prepare the mind of the dying, another person may read sacred texts aloud.

Criticism of Buddhism

Criticisms have been made against practitioners of Buddhism and Buddhist doctrine by both outsiders and several adherents. One critique of the religion includes a difference in rules pertaining to men and women. Historically, most schools of Buddhism have more rules for nuns, including the rule that nuns cannot travel alone; however, adherents justify the difference by explaining that the rules were created at a time that was more dangerous for women.

In several Southeast Asian countries, specifically in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Cambodia, Buddhists have faced criticism from other schools of Buddhism for involving themselves in nationalist politics. Many adherents believe that a Buddhist cannot be nationalist, and condemn the use of violence and denial of human rights to non-Buddhists that occur in countries with Buddhist nationalists. Still, Cambodia's constitution names Buddhism as the country's national religion, requiring the country to support Buddhist schools, and Sri Lanka's constitution dictates that the government "protect and foster" the religion.

Other criticisms of Buddhism include accusations that the religion promotes nihilism, or that Buddhism should not be considered a religion but rather a secular philosophy.

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