Nirvana (Indian religious thought)

In Indian religious thought, nirvana is the ultimate state of enlightenment. It is considered the highest form of spiritual achievement, and is often characterized as an absolute truth that is difficult to describe in words. The concept of nirvana is most closely associated with Buddhism, although a similar idea is also part of the Hindu faith tradition. In Hinduism, the nirvana-like state of absolute reality is more commonly called moksha.

The word nirvana is derived from Sanskrit, where it literally means "blown out," like a lightbulb that suddenly flickers into darkness. It is alternately translated as "cessation," "extinction," "liberation," "non-rebirth," or "quiescence," as nirvana is directly linked to transcending negative emotions and earthly desires, which then cease or become extinct, thus liberating the individual from them. The "non-rebirth" translation refers to the notion that a person who achieves nirvana rises above the ongoing cycle of reincarnation found in both Buddhist and Hindu thought, and is no longer subject to it.

Background

Buddhism and Hinduism both display belief in a cycle of reincarnation, in which a soul progresses through a series of lives as it moves toward enlightenment. The details of this cycle, and the ways in which the features of the cycle differ in Buddhism and Hinduism, are complex. However, both systems are built on a similar set of foundational principles. Virtuous actions and deeds are rewarded, as they enable the soul to move on to higher forms of life, while unethical actions and deeds are punished, as they relegate the soul back to lower forms of life or prevent it from progressing to higher forms. Souls continue through a hierarchical system of reincarnation until they are liberated from the cycle by reaching its pinnacle.

According to the general principles of the major schools of Hinduism, liberation from the cycle of reincarnation is achieved by reaching a harmonic state of karma. The concept of karma holds that actions and deeds carry consequences. Virtuous actions have positive consequences and bring what is informally called "good karma," while unethical actions have negative consequences and bring "bad karma." Karma accumulates over time; a soul that accrued bad karma in a previous life brings this bad karma with it into its new body when it is reincarnated. Performing actions and deeds that bring good karma is the only way to atone for past misdeeds, and must be continually carried out, over as many bodily incarnations as are necessary, for the soul to reach a state of balance. Upon reaching this state of balance, the cumulative effect of a soul's good deeds equals the cumulative effect of its bad deeds. At this point, most Hindu schools hold that a soul is ready to enter the afterlife, which is conceived of as a kind of reunion with the primordial energy from which the entire universe sprang. This cycle, and its ultimate end, represents a simplified explanation of the concept of moksha.

In Buddhism, liberation from the cycle of reincarnation is achieved by reaching the enlightened state of nirvana. Buddhists also believe in a system of karma, but they instead hold that bad karma can only be atoned for after achieving nirvana.

Overview

Siddhartha Gautama, also known as Gautama Buddha or simply Buddha, is recognized as the founder of Buddhism. Born into a wealthy family, Buddha later dedicated himself to a nomadic life of simplicity and meditation as he strove to achieve ultimate spiritual enlightenment. According to Buddhist lore, Buddha finally achieved this state of enlightenment while he was meditating under a tree, during which he entered an omniscient state—nirvana—in which he reached a perfect understanding of the true nature of being.

Buddha was not able to express the full character of his experience in words, and as such, nirvana continues to be an elusive concept that is difficult to describe. However, Buddha likened it to a complete liberation from the earthly notion of self, expressing it as a state of timeless eternity beyond everyday consciousness in which there was no ignorance, no suffering, no hatred, and no other negative emotions. He then laid out a path to achieving nirvana, which is built on four noble truths he came to understand while meditating under the tree. Buddhism's four noble truths are: (1) to live is to suffer; (2) to suffer is to be ignorant of the true nature of the universe; (3) to overcome this ignorance, one must liberate oneself from earthly and material attachments; and (4) earthly and material attachments can be overcome by following a code of conduct known as the noble eightfold path.

By adhering to the noble eightfold path, an individual moves toward nirvana. Some schools of Buddhism teach that nirvana can only be reached by monks, who dedicate themselves to a life of spiritual growth and learning modeled after Buddha's teachings. Those who are not monks can still move toward the eventual achievement of nirvana by learning from the four noble truths and living according to the principles of the noble eightfold path. These commitments prepare one's soul for a future life in which nirvana can be achieved.

According to Buddhism, a soul stops accumulating bad karma after reaching nirvana. At this point, it begins to negate the bad karma it has built up, which may then be erased over the course of the individual's present lifetime, or in a future lifetime. Once all the bad karma attached to a soul has been erased, it escapes the cycle of reincarnation and enters the afterlife.

Various schools of Buddhism conceive of nirvana in different ways. For example, the orthodox school of Hinayana Buddhism holds that there are two different types of nirvana: a partial state that can be achieved during an individual's mortal lifetime, in which the individual reaches ultimate enlightenment but is still bound to earthly life through body and mind. This state is known as incomplete nirvana or the nirvana of remainder. The second state of nirvana is achievable only after death, once an enlightened soul is released from its mortal bindings and limitations, and escapes the cycle of reincarnation. This state is known as complete nirvana, the nirvana of no remainder, or parinirvana.

Buddha did not reveal his views on what the afterlife, the state of parinirvana, consists of. The prevailing belief among Buddhists is that describing the afterlife is impossible and unnecessary, as it is beyond the comprehension of the human mind.

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