Boudicca

British queen and military leader

• Born: First century
• Birthplace: Britain
• Died: 60 c.e.
• Place of death: Central Britain

Having endured flogging and the violation of her daughters, Boudicca led a rebellion of the Britons against the Roman invaders. The Romans were caught by surprise and lost three cities burned by the rebels before the uprising was quelled.

Early Life

Boudicca (boo-DIHK-uh) was born and grew up in Iron Age Britain, which was in the process of subjugation and colonization by Imperial Rome. Her place and date of birth and her parentage are not known; nor, in fact, are any details of her early life except that she married Prasutagus, who was allowed by the Romans to rule his tribe, the Iceni, as a client king. With him, she had two daughters who were probably teenagers by 60 c.e. It seems likely that Boudicca was born between 20 and 30.

Two classical works provide the known extended written accounts of Boudicca: De vita Julii Agricolae (c. 98; The Life of Agricola, 1591) and Ab excessu divi Augusti (c. 116, also known as Annales; Annals, 1598) by Cornelius Tacitus and Romaika (probably c. 202 c.e.; Roman History, 1914-1927) by Dio Cassius. Many archaeological finds—coins, pottery, and ruins of forts and other buildings—have tended to confirm the written accounts. Tacitus is generally accepted as the more reliable historian, because he wrote only forty years after the events and because his father-in-law, Julius Agricola, was a high official in the colonial administration at the time of Boudicca’s revolt. Also, the work of Dio Cassius has survived only in the form of a summary, or “epitome,” made by the monk Xiphilinus of Trapezus in the eleventh century.

The first Roman military adventure in Britain was that of Julius Caesar in 55 b.c.e. After several skirmishes with the Britons in which the Romans were largely victorious, Caesar withdrew, only to return again the next year with additional troops and cavalry. Some Britons, fearing destruction, made peace and agreed to pay tribute to Rome. Others in more remote regions held out fiercely. Distracted by signs of trouble in Gaul, Caesar withdrew again, leaving further conquests to others in the reign of the emperor Claudius, more than a hundred years later.

In 43 c.e., Roman legions led by Aulus Plautius landed in Britain and campaigned against the many tribes of the island in order to bring them under Roman rule. In awe of Roman might, and seeking advantage over other tribes, some leaders made deals with Rome and were allowed to rule as client kings. Others withdrew to the west, into Wales, to wage guerrilla warfare.

The most effective leader of resistance against the Romans was Caratacus, who continued to rally support for his cause even after a decisive Roman victory near the river Medway. These events occurred during the girlhood and young womanhood of Boudicca. Her husband, Prasutagus, was allowed to rule his tribe, the Iceni, as a client king, a sort of intermediary between the Romans, who were the real rulers, and the people.

When Aulus Plautius retired, he was replaced by the experienced and stern general Publius Ostorius Scapula, who arrived in Britain just in time to confront serious uprisings in the West, led by Caratacus. In order to prevent an attack from behind while chasing Caratacus, Scapula ordered all the British tribes to be disarmed, and he established a colony of retired military men at Camulodunum (modern Colchester) that he hoped would be a stabilizing influence. These measures were resented by the Britons, more so because the Romans of the colony lorded it over them, taking their property and treating them as slaves. Eventually, Caratacus fled to the north and was betrayed to the Romans by Queen Cartimandua, who needed to curry Roman favor in return for protection against other tribes. In 51 c.e., Caratacus was taken to Rome in chains. About this time, Scapula died and was succeeded by Didius Gallus, who remained as governor until 58 c.e.

Gallus had to deal with uprisings in the north and with continual trouble with the Silures, a tribe in Wales. On the death of Emperor Claudius, Gallus retired in favor of Veranius, who died within a year but not before waging a vigorous campaign against the Silures. His efforts were continued and expanded by the next governor, Suetonius Paulinus, who had served with distinction in North Africa and who was a specialist in mountain warfare. The death of Prasutagus in 59 c.e. brought on the events for which his widow, Boudicca, has become famous.

Life’s Work

Prasutagus had become wealthy and knew of the Romans’ greed and contempt for the rights of the Britons. He made a will leaving half of his estate to the Emperor Nero, thinking thus to protect the enforcement of the will and to preserve some of the estate for his wife and his daughters. Nevertheless, the local Roman officials, under command of the procurator Catus Decianus, sought to plunder the estate for their own benefit. Boudicca’s objections were met with brutality; she was scourged, and her daughters were raped.

Far from the quietus they had sought, the Romans soon found they had stirred a hornet’s nest. The Iceni and their allies gathered in a horde that may have numbered in the tens of thousands. They descended on the hated encampment of Camulodunum, where a huge temple to the recently deified Claudius was under construction, built with British taxes and British slave labor. In spite of the arrival of two hundred Roman troops, the defenders of Camulodunum were driven into the temple of Claudius and annihilated, their whole town burned and looted. A legion commanded by Petillius Cerealis marched to the relief of Camulodunum but was ambushed and suffered severe losses, Cerealis barely escaping with his life.

The Britons, excited by victory and looting, approached London, which was little more than a village with few defenses. Meanwhile, Suetonius Paulinus had been in the far west on the island of Mona (Anglesey), where his forces had destroyed a druid stronghold and cut down the sacred groves of the cult. He sped to London to see what could be done, but he decided that the city had to be abandoned to the rebels. Catus Decianus fled to Gaul to save himself from the common fate.

Boudicca and her forces burned London to the ground and slew everyone they found there, including Britons they regarded as turncoats. Even today, there is a layer of ashes about seventeen feet beneath the surface in London testifying to the holocaust. The rebels then turned to Verulamium (St. Albans) and sacked it, massacring the occupants, mostly Britons who had befriended the Romans.

Meanwhile, Suetonius Paulinus withdrew to the west and north of London because he needed time to gather provisions. He also sought reinforcements from the legion commanded by Poenius Posthumus stationed near Exeter. Preparing for the approach of the Britons, Paulinus moved his forces to a carefully chosen battlefield in a canyon with a forest behind it. The exact location is unknown, but it may have been near Mancetter, where the horde of Britons confronted the ordered ranks of the Romans. So confident were the Britons that all their families were drawn up behind them in wagons to watch the battle. Boudicca rode on a chariot with her daughters and exhorted the men and women of her army, reciting her grievances against the Romans and urging the Britons to fight for freedom.

Tall and serious in mien, Boudicca was an impressive figure, with fair, waist-long hair, dressed in a multicolored tunic and long cloak. Suetonius Paulinus told his men to ignore the cries of the attacking savages and to press on with their spears and swords, forgetting thoughts of plunder but intent on victory and the glory it would bring.

The Britons attacked with wild, warlike shouting and trumpet blasts, brandishing their yard-long swords, some of them naked with their skins painted with intricate designs in blue. The Romans waited in orderly ranks, wearing armor of steel and leather strips and equipped with shields, spears, and short, thick swords.

The Romans carried the day by superior discipline and benefit of the terrain. After showering the rebels with spears, the Roman phalanx drove ahead, forcing the Britons back into their wagons. In the rout that followed, the Romans put to death anyone they could catch, including the pack animals. Boudicca took poison and died rather than accept capture and humiliation. The Roman reinforcements from Exeter failed to arrive in time for the battle, depriving them and their commander, Poenius Posthumus, from a share in the glory of victory. It is not known whether Posthumus delayed because he feared being ambushed on the way or because he was involved in other military actions. In any event, he felt sufficient shame that he killed himself by falling on his sword. It is asserted that eighty thousand people died in the battle.

In revenge for the uprising, Paulinus and his army swept through the lands of the Iceni, burning crops, looting, and killing anyone they suspected of aiding the rebels. Boudicca was reportedly buried in a magnificent tomb, which has never been found.

Significance

Boudicca’s rebellion and its aftermath were probably the bloodiest events ever to occur on British soil. The Romans were forced to the realization that their terror tactics had led to unacceptable losses and that a more diplomatic policy was needed. Many more years were required for the pacification of Britain, and the Caledonians in the north were never completely subdued. Increased trade and the wealth it brought to cooperative Britons was a major factor in pacification.

The memory of Boudicca turned to the stuff of legend, and she became the symbol of freedom and independence for the British. Her story was retold many times in literature by such authors as Ben Jonson, William Cowper, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, and others.

Queen Elizabeth I and Queen Victoria were both compared with Boudicca, and it is thought that the name Boudicca (also spelled Boadicca, Boadicea, and Boudica) probably means “victory” in the Celtic language. In London, a statue of Boudicca by Thomas Thornycroft was placed near the Houses of Parliament in 1902. It depicts the heroine and her daughters on a huge chariot, quite unlike the small Celtic war chariots described by Julius Caesar.

Bibliography

Dio Cassius. Dio’s Roman History. Translated by E. Cary. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1961. Boudicca’s revolt is discussed in volume 8.

Dudley, D. R., and G. Webster. The Rebellion of Boudicca. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1962. This and Webster’s book (cited below) are major works devoted solely to Boudicca. Legends and traditions are covered as well as history. Portions of Tacitus’s Annals and Agricola describing the rebellion are quoted at length in an appendix, both in the original Latin and in translation.

Fraser, Antonia. The Warrior Queens. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989. Interesting account of women who assumed roles of power usually reserved for men. Boudicca is considered the archetypal “warrior queen” and is discussed alongside Cleopatra, Golda Meir, Margaret Thatcher, and others.

Harrison, Arjae. Boudicca. New York: iUniverse, 2000. Biography uses known historical facts as well as the beliefs, customs, and mores of the Celts.

Ireland, S. Roman Britain: A Sourcebook. London: Routledge, 1996. Translations are provided for selections from Tacitus and Dio Cassius.

Salway, Peter. Roman Britain. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Scholarly account of history (55 b.c.e. to 449 c.e.), culture, economy, and religion. Includes extensive bibliography and maps.

Tacitus, Cornelius. Tacitus on Britain and Germany. Translated by H. Mattingly. Baltimore: Penguin, 1965. Pages 64-67 treat the revolt of Boudicca.

Tacitus, Cornelius. Tacitus on Imperial Rome. Translated by M. Grant. Baltimore: Penguin, 1956. Pages 317-321 provide the most reliable classical source for Boudicca’s revolt.

Webster, Graham. Boudica: The British Revolt Against Rome, A.D. 60. London: Routledge, 1999. The 1962 book by Dudley and Webster cited above, updated to incorporate extensive new archaeological findings from excavations at London, Verulamium, and Colchester. Includes photographs of coins, inscriptions, and other artifacts and views of sites observed from aircraft.