Clement I

Roman bishop

• Born: Unknown
• Birthplace: Perhaps Rome (now in Italy)
• Died: c. 99
• Place of death: Perhaps in the Crimea (now in Ukraine)

Clement was the first of the Apostolic Fathers about whom anything is known and, according to tradition, was the third successor to Peter as bishop of Rome. Clement was also the author of the earliest and most valuable surviving example of Christian literature not included in the New Testament.

Early Life

Of the life of Clement (CLEH-mehnt) very little is known with absolute certainty. He is called Clement of Rome (Clemens Romanus) to distinguish him from the later Clement of Alexandria (Clemens Alexandrinus). No reliable source gives even the approximate date or place of his birth. An early Christian work attributed to him titled Recognitions (third century c.e.) states that he was born in the city of Rome and that he was from his early youth given to meditating and sober reflection on such serious subjects as the nature of life, whether there was a preexistence, and the possibility of immortality. According to that work, he was converted to Christianity by the disciple Barnabas, who came to Rome to preach and thereafter introduced him to Peter, who received him with great joy.

Such a story is not inconsistent with other information now known about Clement. Nevertheless, true authorship of Recognitions cannot be ascribed to Clement himself because most scholars believe that it was penned more than a century after his time. Despite this doubt, however, the work is not completely without value; indeed, it seems to preserve traditions that contain some kernels of truth.

Undoubtedly, Clement was a younger contemporary of Peter and Paul. The early church scholars and theologians Origen (c. 185-254), Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260-339), Epiphanius (c. 315-403), and Saint Jerome (c. 331/347-420) all identify Clement of Rome as the Clement spoken of in Philippians 4:3. This Scripture calls him Paul’s fellow laborer. Similarly, Saint Irenaeus (c. 120/140-202) states that Clement saw the Apostles and talked with them, that their preaching was so fresh in his mind at the time he rose to prominence that it still rang in his ears, and that many of Clement’s generation had been taught personally by the Apostles. Clement himself intimates that he was closely associated with Peter and Paul.

Clement was probably of Jewish descent. His close association with the Apostles, who were all Jewish, and his wide use of and familiarity with the Old Testament, as demonstrated in the one surviving authentic Clementine work, lend support to this inference. Clement’s style of writing is colored with Hebraisms, but he probably possessed no real understanding of Hebrew, knowing only the Septuagint (Greek) translation of the Old Testament, as many Jews of the day did.

An ancient tradition identifies Clement with a certain Flavius Clemens, a distinguished Roman nobleman who held the office of consul in 95 c.e. and was the nephew of the emperor Vespasian. It is difficult to believe that the same man held both the consulship and the bishopric, as these times were difficult ones for the Church because of Roman antagonism.

It is also unlikely that the Hellenistic Jewish style of Clement’s epistle would be as prominent if Clement came from the Roman classical culture of a court circle. It is more likely, then, that the future church leader was a freedman or former slave belonging to the house of Clemens and that, in accordance with custom, he assumed the name of his patron when fully liberated.

Life’s Work

At some point in his life, Clement became a leader in the Roman church and was ultimately ordained bishop of that Christian community about the year 90 c.e. While Tertullian, writing about 199 c.e., says that Clement was ordained by Peter before the Apostle’s death (c. 64 c.e.), other ancient, reliable authorities state that Clement was preceded by two other successors to Peter (Linus and Anacletus) and thus was the fourth bishop of Rome. Clement’s fame rests on both his designation as the first known Apostolic Father and his authorship of the epistle to the Corinthian church.

The expression “Apostolic Fathers” seems to have been used first by Severus of Antioch, patriarch of Alexandria in the sixth century and scholar of early Christian literature. The phrase referred to those who were not Apostles but disciples of the Apostles and who authored writings contemporaneous with or prior to those of Irenaeus in the second century. The Apostolic Fathers, then, were the earliest orthodox writers outside the New Testament. Clement was the first, chronologically, of this group, which includes Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Barnabas, and Hermas. Klementos pros Korinthious epistola prōtē (first century c.e.; The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians, also known as First Clement, 1647) is the earliest extant Christian document outside the New Testament.

The epistle to the Corinthians was Clement’s most important achievement. Although Clement’s name is not mentioned in the letter, he seems to have been from the first recognized as its author. About 170 c.e., Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, while acknowledging another letter written from the church of Rome to the church of Corinth, mentions that the letter written by Clement was still read from time to time in their Sunday assemblies. Eusebius also speaks of the epistle to the Corinthians as being Clement’s, as do Irenaeus, Origen, and Clement of Alexandria.

Clement wrote his epistle sometime after he became bishop of Rome, though the exact date of its composition is not known. The second century Christian historian Hegesippus, who visited the Corinthian church on a trip to Rome, learned that the letter was written during the reign of Domitian (81-96 c.e.). If one considers an allusion Clement makes in the epistle to the persecutions of Christians that took place at Rome under Domitian in 93 c.e., the date of the epistle can be placed between the years 93 and 96 c.e.

Clement’s main objective in writing The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians was to restore peace and unity to that Greek branch of the Church. The Corinthians had been led by some young, rebellious individuals to rise up against their lawfully appointed presbyters. The significance of Clement’s epistle is twofold. First, it outlines the organization, or structure, of the apostolic church. Second, it seems to have helped lay the foundation for the birth of the Roman Catholic papacy and papal theory.

Clement states that the action taken by the seditious persons at Corinth was inexcusable. He declares that Christ was sent forth by God, the Apostles were sent by Christ, and the Apostles, preaching throughout the known world, appointed the first fruits of their proselytizing activity to be bishops after having proved them by the Spirit. Clement also says that the Apostles gave instructions that when these bishops appointed by them should die, other approved men should succeed them in their ministry by appointment from the Apostles or other eminent men, with the consent of the whole church. He urges the schismatics at Corinth to return to the true order of the church, to put away strife, disorder, jealousy, and pride.

While no claim is made by the Roman church leader to interfere with another on any grounds of superior rank, the unmistakably authoritative tone of the letter gives its author more than merely a peacemaker’s role. Using Clement’s epistle as a precedent, Roman bishops of the second century began to assume preeminent authority to resolve general Christian disputes. By the mid-third century, the practice had arisen of reckoning Peter not only as chief Apostle but also as first bishop of Rome. Gradually, the term “pope” or “father” (Latin papa), which had been used for any bishop in Western Europe, began to be directed toward the bishop of Rome exclusively.

Clement served as bishop of Rome about nine years. During his time as head of one of Christianity’s most important communities, Clement wrote his epistle and was occupied with duties centering on proselytism, exhortation, keeping the Church unified, and helping it to survive attacks and persecutions such as the one promoted by Domitian.

There are conflicting tales concerning the death of Clement. According to Eusebius and Jerome, he died a natural death in the third year of the reign of the emperor Trajan. Other traditions, however, reckon him among the martyrs. The apocryphal Acts of the Martyrs relates how, toward the end of his life and tenure of office, Clement converted more than four hundred Romans of rank; as a result, Trajan banished the bishop to the Chersonese Peninsula in the Black Sea area. There Clement set to work converting the people of the country (two thousand in number), who built seventy-five churches. Trajan then had Clement thrown into the sea with an iron anchor around his neck. This story circulated for many years until around 868, when Saint Cyril, Apostle to the Slavs, dug up some bones and an anchor in the Crimea. Hailed as the relics of Clement, these remains were carried back to Rome and deposited by Pope Adrian II with the relics of Ignatius of Antioch in the Basilica of Saint Clement in Rome.

Significance

Next to the Apostles themselves, Clement was for many generations the most esteemed figure in the Church. Clement of Alexandria called him an Apostle. Jerome referred to him as an apostolic man, and Rufinus said that he was almost an Apostle.

Clement’s letter to the church at Corinth was for centuries considered canonical by many and on a par with the epistles of Paul. Eusebius speaks of the public reading of Clement’s letter as the ancient custom of many churches down to his own time. The list of ancient Christian authorities and leaders who quoted The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians includes Polycarp and Ignatius, themselves Apostolic Fathers.

Numerous spurious writings have been attributed to Clement. The most celebrated among these was probably the second century The Second Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians (translated 1693), purporting to supplement the first. This second letter was also held in great respect by early Christians. It is interesting to note that the two epistles disappeared from the Western Church in the sixth century. They were rediscovered in the year 1628, when an ancient manuscript of the Greek Bible was presented to King Charles I of England by the patriarch Cyril Lukaris.

Bibliography

Apostolic Fathers. The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations of Their Writings. Translated and edited by J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. 2d ed. Revised by Michael W. Holmes. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1999. An extensive and authoritative work that covers Clement and his writing. It presents a facsimile of the actual Greek texts of the two epistles along with translations, notes, and commentaries on the texts. Lightfoot synthesizes and distills all the references to Clement in ancient literature and history to attempt to fill in the gaps concerning his life.

Clemens Romanus. The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians. Edited by W. K. Lowther Clarke. London: Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, 1963. Contains introductory notes and a translation of Clement’s authentic epistle. The explanations of the text illuminate Clement’s life and the historical context of the letter.

Grant, Robert M. The Apostolic Fathers. 6 vols. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1964-1968. Vol. 1 is among the most accessible works on the Apostolic Fathers and their world. It discusses who the Apostolic Fathers were and their historical circumstances, theological outlook, and writings. The relationship between Clement and the other Apostolic Fathers is also discussed. Vol. 2, First and Second Clement, includes a translation (in idiomatic English) of, and commentary on, the two epistles ascribed to Clement. Includes detailed annotations and cross-references for virtually every verse of the two epistles.

Richardson, Cyril C., ed. Early Christian Fathers. Vol. 1 in The Library of Christian Classics. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1953. This first volume in a series on the classic documents of Christianity contains a fine translation of both epistles as well as a brief but thorough introduction to Clement and his writing. Its greatest value is the extensive bibliography on Clement and his work.

Staniforth, Maxwell. Early Christian Writings. New York: Dorset Press, 1986. A readable introduction to the Apostolic Fathers and their writings. The section on Clement contains an introduction to the man and his work and a translation of the two epistles. The introduction discusses the significance of Clement’s bishopric for the Church. Includes helpful footnotes.