Unkei

Japanese sculptor

• Born: c. 1150
• Birthplace: Probably Nara, Japan
• Died: 1223
• Place of death: Probably Nara, Japan

During the Kamakura period, Unkei established a new style of Buddhist sculpture that reflected the ascendency of the warrior culture in Japan.

Early Life

Unkei (ewn-kay) is the best-known sculptor in Japanese history. He was active in the early Kamakura period and was the son of Kōkei, who was probably a fifth-generation descendant of Jōchō, another influential Japanese sculptor. The date of Unkei’s birth is uncertain; nevertheless, scholars have speculated that it was around 1150, based on the birth date of his eldest child, Tankei, in 1173. Although there is no literary record of his early life, it is likely that Unkei was an apprentice to his father, who was chief sculptor of the Kei school (also called the Nara school) during the last half of the twelfth century. The Kei school, which began in 1096 with Jōchō’s grandson, Raijo, had developed in Nara, Japan’s oldest permanent capital, centering on the Kōfukuji (Kōfuku temple).

During the late twelfth century, the In and En schools (also known as the Kyoto schools) were prosperous in Kyoto and enjoyed aristocratic patronage. These two schools dominated the sculptural arts, preserving the traditional Jōchō style as their noble patrons desired. Unfortunately, this tradition was becoming overly refined in detail and was no longer fresh and vivid as it had been under Jōchō. It was degenerating into a formalistic imitation.

To counter this stagnation, the Kei school attempted to create a new style, one based on the more realistic expression found in art during the latter part of the Nara period (710-784). Being less involved in important art commissions than the Kyoto schools were and thus freed from the constraints of aristocratic taste, the Kei school was allowed to establish a distinctive manner. Kōkei promoted this movement, and his son Unkei completed the innovation by creating the Kamakura style.

The Amida triad in the Chōgakuji (Chōgaku temple) in Nara, sculpted in 1151, was one of the early experimental works, possibly made by Raijo’s son, Kōjo. A monumental effort, it attempted to defeat the mannerism of the traditional Jōchō style by returning to the classic, naturalistic style of the latter Nara-period sculpture and adding a new technique: the creation of crystal eyes called gyokugan, which gave statues an increased realism.

Unkei’s Buddha Dainichi at the Enjōji (Enjō temple) in Nara is one of the sculptures that seem to follow the style seen in the Chōgaku-ji triad. The Dainichi was made in 1176 and is the earliest of Unkei’s extant works. The inscription on the pedestal states that the image was made by “true apprentice of Kōkei, Unkei.” This inscription is usually interpreted by scholars to mean that Unkei was the son and disciple of Kōkei. Unkei, probably in his mid-twenties, appears to have carved the Buddha under the guidance of his father. The image’s rounded cheeks and chin, wide, high knees, and strong articulation of folds reflect a sense of youthfulness. A high topknot and crystal eyes clearly follow the Chōgaku-ji Amida. Overall, the Dainichi retains the grace of the traditional Jōchō style, but Unkei’s youthful vigor, seen in this image, indicates his future brilliant career.

Life’s Work

Unkei lived during a time of social and political revolution in which power shifted from the aristocracy to the warrior class. In 1192, Minamoto Yoritomo, the leader of the Minamoto clan, which replaced the Taira clan, established its military government (bakufu ) in Kamakura in eastern Japan. Prior to this action, Nara’s most disastrous event had occurred during the war between the two clans: the destruction of the Tōdaiji and Kōfukuji, two important temples, in 1180. The Kei school sculptors contributed their full energy to the reconstruction of the two temples.

Unkei’s association with the warrior class began during this period. The Kei school needed powerful support in the new era because the Kyoto and Kei schools were in conflict over the right to reconstruct the Kōfukuji. According to the historical record Azuma kagami (twelfth century; mirror of the east), the sixth-generation descendant of Jōchō went to eastern Japan and made the temple images for Minamoto Yoritomo in 1185. Scholars are still debating whether Unkei actually went to the eastern region. Nevertheless, after having been invited by two important politicians of the Kamakura bakufu, he made the images for two eastern Japanese temples.

In 1186, Unkei carved the images of the Ganjōjuin temple in the prefecture of Shizuoka. Yoritomo’s father-in-law, Hōjō Tokimasa, commissioned the project, praying for the success of his northeastern expedition. The images consisted of an Amida, a Fudō, and a Bishamonten; the flanking bodhisattvas of the Amida do not remain. Four inscribed wooden tablets from each figure of the Fudō and Bishamonten prove the images to be Unkei’s works.

In 1189, following the Ganjōjuin images, Unkei worked for the Jōrakuji (Jōraku temple) in the prefecture of Kanagawa. The statues to be made were an Amida, a Fudō, and a Bishamonten. The patron was Wada Yoshimori, another important figure of the Kamakura bakufu. Inscribed tablets were also found in each of these statues. They state that these icons were made by Unkei with the help of ten shōbusshi (minor sculptors).

Both sets of temple images share common features: iconography, inscribed wooden tablets, and style. This style, which is characterized by a rough, massive body and complicated drapery folds, is dissimilar to his most important works, such as the Enjōji Dainichi and Hokuendō Miroku. Thus, the statues were not identified as Unkei’s work until all the inscribed tablets were found.

By his mid-thirties, Unkei still had not acquired any honorable titles and the roughness and wildness of the Jōrakuji and Ganjōjuin images were probably the results of one of his experiments in negating the aristocratic sense of beauty. These bakufu commissions were perfect opportunities for him to express himself artistically without any restrictions. Such a trend is particularly noticeable in the Ganjōjuin figures.

In the Ganjōjuin Amida, the work’s massiveness and the triangular shape of the drapery on the leg, which is also seen in the Chōgakuji Amida, seem to derive from early Heian period (794-1185) sculpture. Deeply undulating folds and the preaching mudra (symbolic position of the hands) are often found in work of the Nara period. Unkei’s image is an extension of the Chōgakuji Amida and shows his study of the classical sculpture. Moreover, the power of the later Amida exceeds that of the classical figures, and its realism appeals strongly to the viewer. The realistic facial expressions and movements of the Fudō and Bishamonten also seem to reflect the warrior class’s taste and Unkei’s interpretation of the people in the eastern region. The wild impression was reduced and became more organized in the later Jōrakuji images.

Unkei perhaps went back to the Kōfukuji and Tōdaiji reconstruction project after his commissions at Jōrakuji. He was awarded the Buddhist rank of hōgen (eyes of law) in 1195 for his work at Tōdaiji. The Kei school, which was treated less favorably than the Kyoto schools in the Kōfukuji project, was given great opportunities to work on the Tōdaiji by the monk Chōgen (one of the men in charge of the restoration) and Yoritomo. While working at Tōdaiji, Unkei acquired the position of chief sculptor for the Tōji (Tō temple) in Kyoto.

The works for Tōji were arranged by Mongaku, a monk who was closely associated with Yoritomo. Unkei’s relationship with the warrior class was further strengthened by his ties to Mongaku. Unkei also worked on the images for Mongaku’s temple, Jingoji. Through these works, Unkei learned more about early Heian sculpture; this influence appears in his later images.

In 1202, Unkei made a small Fugen bodhisattva for the regent Konoe Motomichi. This commission indicates that Unkei was finally being favored by the courtiers of Kyoto. During this period, Unkei’s studio was located in Kyoto, and he was commissioned by both warriors and aristocrats. His success led to the prosperity of the Kei school.

Two of Unkei’s masterpieces, the giant devas at the Tōdaiji South Gate, were made in 1203 with the help of Kaikei in approximately seventy days. The statues, nearly 28 feet (9 meters) high, present the essence of Kamakura sculpture. The expressions of rage, stances of the bodies, and flowing movements of the costumes are vigorous and tense.

The deities also display perfect studio work. Unkei, Kaikei, and two other daibusshi (major sculptors) made the statues in collaboration with sixteen shōbusshi (minor sculptors). Because of the statues’ similarities, it is almost impossible to distinguish any one sculptor’s techniques. Although the A-gyō (statue with an open mouth) can be ascribed to Kaikei because of the inscribed names inside it, the two statues were conceived by one person, probably Unkei. Unkei’s ability to lead and the organized studio system of the Kei school made this high degree of stylistic consistency possible. Also in 1203, Unkei was promoted to the highest rank, hōin (seal of law), and Kaikei was awarded the hokkyō (bridge of law) rank.

Several years later, with his sons and other Kei school sculptors, Unkei began to work on his last project for Kōfukuji. Of these images, the Buddha Miroku and the monks Muchaku and Seshin remain in the Hokuendō hall of the temple. The Miroku, which was finished around 1212, presents a more mature style than the earlier Ganjōjuin and Jōrakuji figures; this maturity is particularly noticeable in the Buddha’s gentle, stable form and slenderness. The massive portrait statues of Muchaku and Seshin demonstrate Unkei’s dedication to a more realistic technique, as may be seen in the heavy robes with their roughly carved folds, the static postures, the three-dimensional forms, and the sensitive movement of the hands. Despite this realism, like all Buddhist icons, these statues capture a spiritual truth as well: They represent the eternal truth in the human figure and move the viewer’s soul with their ponderous, serious forms.

In his later years, Unkei is known to have worked primarily for the Kamakura bakufu. Despite his activity, however, no works remain extant after the Kōfukuji Hokuendō images. He is believed to have died in 1223.

Significance

From the end of the Heian period to the early part of the Kamakura period (1185-1333) was a time of disturbance. The decline of the aristocrats and the rise of the warrior class required a new type of art. Quickly responding to this need, Unkei and other Kei school artists created a new style whose strong, masculine, realistic features were suitable to the taste of the new powers in the land. This realism was also a comment on the sculptors of Nara who had merely tolerated their inferior position. Unkei not only achieved a powerfully innovative individual style but also raised the social status of the entire Kei school with his great insight and leadership.

Historically, Japanese sculpture has almost always made rapid progress under intense foreign influence, particularly from China. Contrary to this trend, starting with the conversion of Jōchō’s pure Japanese style, Unkei brought Japanese sculpture to fruition by recapturing the sculptural qualities of classic Japanese works and adding to this legacy a new realism.

Bibliography

Harris, Victor, and Ken Matsushima. Kamakura: The Renaissance of Japanese Sculpture, 1185-1333. London: British Museum Press, 1991. The catalog from an exhibition of the British Museum, the Agency for Cultural Affairs, Tokyo, and the Japan Foundation featuring sculpture in the Kamakura period.

Horomitsu, Washizuka, et al. Enlightenment Embodied: The Art of the Japanese Buddhist Sculptor, Seventh to Fourteenth Centuries. Translated and edited by Reiko Tomii and Kathleen M. Fraiello. New York: Agency for Cultural Affairs, Government of Japan, and Japan Society, 1997. This catalog of an exhibition at the Japan Society Gallery in 1997 features Buddhist art.

Kuno, Takeshi, ed. A Guide to Japanese Sculpture. Tokyo: Maruyama, 1963. Useful for a survey of the major trends in the history of Japanese sculpture. Contains a helpful glossary and charts.

Mori, Hisashi. Japanese Portrait Sculpture. Translated by W. Chie Ichibashi. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1977. Discusses the history of portrait sculpture from the Nara to the Kamakura period. Useful for its references to the statues of Muchaku and Seshin.

Mori, Hisashi. Sculpture of the Kamakura Period. Translated by Katherine Eickmann. New York: John Weatherhill, 1974. A good source covering the full range of Kamakura sculpture; pays special attention to the social and historical background.

Morse, Anne Nishimura, and Nobuo Tsuji, eds. Japanese Art in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 2 vols. Boston: The Museum, 1998. This catalog of Buddhist art in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, presents a wide array of art, including painting, sculpture, Nō masks, robes, and paintings from the Kano and Rimpa schools.

Nishikawa, Kyōtarō, and Emily J. Sano. The Great Age of Japanese Buddhist Sculpture, A.D. 600-1300. Fort Worth, Tex.: Kimbell Art Museum, 1982. The catalog of an exhibition of Japanese Buddhist sculpture at the Kimbell Art Museum.

Stanley-Baker, Joan. Japanese Art. Rev. ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2000. A general work on Japanese art. Chapter 5 focuses on the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, covering the period in which Unkei worked.