Broadcast media and racial relations
Broadcast media has historically played a significant role in shaping racial relations in the United States, often perpetuating stereotypes and presenting a narrow view of racial and ethnic diversity. From the late 19th century to the mid-20th century, portrayals of African Americans, Hispanics, Asians, and Native Americans were predominantly negative, reinforcing harmful stereotypes that depicted these groups as lazy, devious, or primitive. Despite some progress in representation, such as the emergence of African American entertainers in the early 20th century, many portrayals remained unflattering and often relied on clichés.
The 1960s and beyond saw gradual shifts in media representation, with shows like *Julia* and *Roots* beginning to depict African Americans in more positive and complex roles. However, while there was increased visibility of diverse characters, the acceptance of these portrayals remained mixed, often influenced by the performers' racial backgrounds and nuances of their characters. The 1970s and 1980s continued this trend, showcasing greater diversity and more nuanced depictions, although some critics argued that certain representations still leaned into stereotypical portrayals for humor or drama.
In the 21st century, while strides have been made toward increased representation, media still faces criticism for underrepresenting racial and ethnic minorities. Reports indicate that the majority of characters in media remain predominantly white, highlighting ongoing challenges in achieving true diversity and accurate portrayal in broadcast media. Overall, the evolution of broadcast media reflects a complex interplay between societal attitudes and the representation of race and ethnicity, revealing both progress and persistent issues.
Broadcast media and racial relations
SIGNIFICANCE: Television, films, and other broadcast media have often ignored minorities or portrayed them negatively. More diverse representations of American culture made their way onto the screen in the late twentieth century, but some stereotyping and anglicizing of ethnic and racial groups still occurs.
American broadcast media have tended to reinforce popular stereotypes or simply ignore diversity issues rather than break new ground by offering realistic portrayals of racial and ethnic groups. For example, mass media stereotyping in films and television shows that portray the American West traditionally ignored the existence of Black cowboys.
Early Media
During the latter part of the nineteenth century, popular media tended to depict African Americans as simple-minded and slothful and Hispanics as dirty, devious, and lazy. Asian Americans typically were a mass of inscrutable, untrustworthy laborers, and Native Americans were usually shown as primitive savages. Media tended to either ignore racial and ethnic groups or portray them negatively.
During the early twentieth century, Black entertainers began to perform in some radio programs and films. However, the depictions of African American stereotypes tended to be unflattering; radio and film characters such as Buckwheat in the Little Rascals films; Jack Benny’s sidekick, Rochester; and Stepin Fetchit were typically slow-witted, fearful buffoons. The media continued to depict Black people as lazy and dull-witted through the 1940s. For example, the popular radio program Amos ’n’ Andy focused on the antics of two stereotypical Black characters in Harlem, the conniving Kingfish and his gullible friend, Andy. The radio show featured an all-White cast, so when the program moved to television in 1951, the Columbia Broadcasting System scrambled to find suitable Black replacements.
Another crossover from radio to television, Beulah (1950), cast Ethel Waters and later Louise Beavers as the savvy, if inarticulate, Black maid of a bumbling White family. Beulah routinely came to the rescue of her employers, but overall, the show did little to raise the status of African Americans. The lead character’s signature line, “Somebody bawl fo’ Beulah?” and her shifty boyfriend reinforced the notions that Black people were primarily uneducated laborers and domestics and were not to be trusted.
The media responded to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 by portraying Japanese people—and by extension, all Asians and Asian Americans—as devious, cunning, and brutal people. Such Asian American stereotypes fueled wartime fears, contributed to the internment of Japanese Americans, and resulted in discrimination and harsh treatment of other Asian Americans.
The Late 1950s
African American singers and Broadway actors such as Nat King Cole, Lena Horne, Sidney Poitier, and Harry Belafonte became respected and successful entertainers who were popular with both White and Black listeners in the late 1950s. Some people believe that the relatively light complexions of Horne and Belafonte, and Poitier and Cole’s “White” voices, made these entertainers more acceptable to White audiences and helped them break through the color barrier. Whether or not this is true, these entertainers did help later African American singers and actors reach a wider audience, make more television appearances, and gain more (and better) film roles. Cole was given his own television program, The Nat King Cole Show (1956), but the popular singer raised the ire of some viewers when he appeared on stage accompanied by White female entertainers. The show was canceled after one season.
During the 1950s, Hispanics were rarely represented on television, despite growing numbers of Hispanic viewers. Characters such as Pepino Garcia on The Real McCoys (1957) reinforced prevailing stereotypes of Hispanics as farmworkers. The romantic and fiery-tempered characters played by successful and popular Latino actors such as Desi Arnaz and Cesar Romero were also somewhat stereotypical; however, the actors were able to achieve stardom. With the exception of Tonto (Jay Silverheels) in The Lone Ranger (1949), Native Americans were generally depicted as marauding savages in the 1940s and 1950s. Asian Americans were represented by Bonanza’s (1959) confused and deferential housekeeper, Hop Sing (Victor Sen Yung).
Changing Times
Perhaps the biggest changes in the media’s perception of African Americans occurred during the 1960s. The 1968 television show Julia featured Diahann Carroll as a widow and single mother working as a nurse. The show broke several stereotypes and was among the first programs to depict a Black character in a prestigious career field. It paved the way for several shows featuring African Americans in the subsequent decade. However, some people suggest that Carroll’s light complexion and “White” diction enabled the show to become popular with White audiences and that acceptance of shows featuring African Americans was still somewhat lacking. On the big screen, films such as Lilies of the Field (1963) and A Raisin in the Sun (1961) tackled integration and prejudice, and Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner? (1967) raised the issue of interracial relationships. The latter film featured some of the frankest discussion to date regarding race relations in general and had a profound impact not only on young people but also on their parents.
During the 1960s and 1970s, depictions of Asian Americans on television became more respectful although they remained stereotypical. On The Courtship of Eddie’s Father (1969), for example, the Japanese housekeeper, Mrs. Livingston, was a frequent source of wisdom. Kung Fu (1972) depicted a Chinese American Buddhist monk who wandered the American West seeking peace and tolerance. Although the martial arts had been popularized in the United States by Chinese American actor Bruce Lee, the lead in the television show was given to a White actor, David Carradine.
Between 1965 and 1975, the proportion of African American characters on television reached 7 percent. I Spy (1965), Mission: Impossible (1966), and The Mod Squad (1968) all featured competent, well-educated African American characters. Movies such as Cotton Comes to Harlem (1970) and Shaft (1971) and television comedies including The Flip Wilson Show (1970), Sanford and Son (1972), Good Times (1974), and The Jeffersons (1975), eschewed assimilated characters in favor of those demonstrating Black pride. African American film actors Billy Dee Williams, Richard Pryor, and Eddie Murphy also portrayed characters with an edge. Alex Haley’s 1977 television miniseries Roots, based on his novel of the same name, found more than 130 million Americans tuning in to follow the history of four generations of black Americans. According to one survey, more than 90 percent of all Black Americans and 70 percent of White Americans watched at least some part of the eight-night series.
On-Screen Diversity
In the 1970s and 1980s, television programs and films began to portray racial and ethnic minorities in a more positive, realistic light. Depictions of African Americans were more positive and culturally diverse, and Hispanic people also began to be portrayed as intelligent, competent members of American society. Hispanic people also retained a distinct cultural identity with television programs such as Chico and the Man (1974) and Tony Orlando and Dawn (1974). Shows such as Kojak (1973), Rhoda (1974), Baretta (1975), and Barney Miller (1975) also celebrated ethnic diversity.
After playing an instrumental role in breaking African American stereotypes as a stand-up comedian and a star of the hit television series I Spy, Bill Cosby became one of the most beloved entertainers of the 1980s and the star of a popular weekly television show, The Cosby Show, featuring a doctor and his family. His ability to entertain made him a superstar popular with both White and Black viewers. The series not only undermined stereotypes for a mainstream audience but also was one of the first to celebrate African American identity as distinct from the dominant culture. However, some critics decried The Cosby Show, calling it a dark-skinned version of a White family program. Similarly, superstars of the 1990s whose popularity was not limited to Black audiences, such as singer Whitney Houston and actor Denzel Washington, have been criticized for what some perceive as their similarity to White entertainers.
In the 1990s, race- and ethnic-specific programs, including In Living Color (1990) and Martin (1992), appeared on alternative networks such as Fox and UPN. Many of these programs, some with minority writers, directors, or producers, featured more realistic depictions of race and ethnic groups. Sometimes, however, in order to create humor or heighten drama, these programs exaggerated cultural and ethnic characteristics that bordered on stereotypes. The contributions of minority film directors and writers have helped bring a share of realism to the screen, as in the work of film director Spike Lee (She’s Gotta Have It, 1986; Do the Right Thing, 1989; Jungle Fever, 1991; Malcolm X, 1992; and BlacKkKlansman, 2018). Lee, whose films often examine racism in the United States, has criticized Hollywood’s stance toward Black filmmakers. However, some critics have charged that his portrayal of Black culture in the ghetto actually tends to perpetuate Black stereotypes among White viewers.
In the twenty-first century, gains in diversity continued to be made, though criticism also continued that racial and ethnic minorities remained underrepresented in film and television. A 2016 report from the USC Annenberg School of Communication and Journalism (Smith et al.) indicated that in shows reviewed across all media platforms—broadcast, cable, film, and internet streaming—71.7 percent of speaking or named characters were White, 12.2 percent were Black, 5.8 percent were Hispanic, and 2.3 percent were Asian. UCLA’s 2024 Hollywood Diversity Report found that 29.2 percent of lead actors in 2023 were people of color. Further, most of 2023's top films featured diverse casts. Of the top 20 films for opening weekend sales, 14 of them featured casts featuring people of color. Despite these gains, reports noted that Latino representation in 2023 remained stagnate. On-screen Latinos represented just 7 percent of roles, despite making up 20 percent of the population.
Through the 1950s, television, film, radio, and other popular media reflected and reinforced stereotypes of race and ethnicity. Although writers and producers occasionally fall back on stereotypes and cliches for comedic or dramatic purposes, popular media since the 1960s have made a great deal of progress in presenting a more accurate picture of ethnic and racial groups.
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