Epithet transfer
Epithet transfer refers to the phenomenon where derogatory language originally directed at one racial or ethnic group is subsequently applied to another group, often reflecting societal anxieties and prejudices. This process typically involves a dominant group using pejorative terms to describe newcomers, showcasing a desire to maintain social hierarchy and express fear of competition, particularly during periods of significant immigration. The term "epithet," rooted in Greek meaning "something added," implies that these derogatory labels are imposed upon groups, contributing to stereotyping and discrimination.
Historical examples illustrate this concept, such as the terms "dago" and "guinea." Originally associated with Spaniards and later applied to Italian immigrants in the United States, "dago" became a derogatory reference that encapsulated negative stereotypes about Italians and their culture. Similarly, "guinea," initially linked to individuals of African descent, was transferred to Italians, reinforcing harmful associations based on skin color and social status.
Epithet transfer reflects broader societal structures of discrimination and often results in psychological harm to those targeted by such slurs. This dynamic highlights the ongoing challenges of prejudice and the impact of language in shaping intergroup relations. Understanding epithet transfer is essential for addressing the roots of racial and ethnic tensions in society today.
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Epithet transfer
Epithet transfer is the process whereby derogatory language initially applied to a particular racial or ethnic group is transferred to another group. Usually, it is an established, dominant group that will use epithets when referring to newcomers. The term “epithet” derives from the Greek, meaning “something that is put on or added.” Within the context of race relations, however, the words added to a group’s identity usually have a negative connotation. Epithets demonstrate the dominant groups' fear of newcomers, the desire to subordinate newcomers in much the same way that the original targets of the epithet were, and the intensity of intergroup conflict. Hostility is especially pronounced when a dominant group feels threatened, as occurred at the beginning of the twentieth century, when large numbers of immigrant groups entered the United States and competed with established group members for jobs. Epithets and their transfer encourage stereotyping of groups and therefore become contributing factors in both prejudice and discrimination waged at newcomers.
Epithet transfer can be illustrated by reference to two ethnic epithets, dago and guinea. Dago, an altered version of the Spanish name Diego, or James, was initially applied to Spaniards and the Portuguese. With the arrival of a new wave of Italian immigrants in the United States around the beginning of the twentieth century, this epithet—with its connotation of “foreigner”—was transferred to them and became a frequently used, highly insulting ethnic slur. It described Italians, their language, their food, and Italy itself. One definition given for dago was macaroni, a food closely associated with Italians. Likewise, during Prohibition, inexpensive red wine was called dago red. Italy became Dagoland. More generally—in what can be seen as another transfer of the epithet—dago was used to refer to anyone of darker complexion who was of Mediterranean ancestry and even of Cubans.
Skin color also was an underlying issue in the transfer of the guinea epithet. During the eighteenth century, guinea referred to African Americans whose heritage was linked to the Guinea coast of Africa. Once again, Italians became subject to epithet transfer and were categorized as guineas. This enabled established groups to distance themselves from Italian newcomers by perceiving them to be dark-skinned and, therefore, equal in status to African Americans, who historically had been relegated to a subordinate position in society. As Irving Allen in his 1990 work Unkind Words suggests, Italians were “no better than blacks.” Guinea gangplank, a name referring to the Verrazano Bridge in New York, is an example of the term being used in a disparaging manner. Not only did the bridge honor an Italian, Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazano, but it connected the largely Italian Staten Island with Long Island, New York.
Just as Italians have experienced the process of epithet transfer, so, too, have words associated with Italians been extended disparagingly to other groups. The term wop is a shortened form of the Italian guappo, which comes from the Latin vappa, or “wine gone flat.” Although at one time used as a greeting, gradually wop took on a pejorative connotation: wop house for Italian restaurant and wop special for spaghetti. The word wop has been interpreted as an acronym standing for “without passport/papers,” in reference to Italian immigrants who were deported because they did not have documentation, and “working on pavement,” reflecting the work done by many Italian immigrants. Wop was extended to refer not only to Italians but also to any dark-skinned person of southern European descent.
On the structural level, epithets and their transfer reflect the pervasiveness of discrimination in society. On the individual level, those subject to ethnic slurs are vulnerable to stigmatization and psychological harm.
Bibliography
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McArthur, Tom. "Ethnic Name." Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language. New York: Oxford UP, 2005. Print.
Mencken, H. L. The American Language. Suppl. 1. New York: Knopf, 1988. Print.
Parezo, Nancy J. "Epithets, Ethnic and Racial." Multicultural America: A Multimedia Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Ed. Carlos E. Cortés. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2013. 800–802. Print.
Tricarico, Donald. "Labels and Stereotypes." The Italian American Experience: An Encyclopedia. Ed. Salvatore J. LaGumina, Frank J. Cavaioli, Salvatore Primeggia, and Joseph A. Varacalli. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print.