Motivation and Achievement in Physical Education

Student achievement in physical education can offer physical education teachers a challenge as their students are often at differing developmental levels and have different types and levels of motivation toward engaging in physical activity. This article discusses the national standards of achievement in physical education and theories of motivation that can be applied to the physical education teaching methods in order to increase motivation in students. Cognitive evaluation theory, self-determination theory, and achievement goal theory can be applied to physical education teaching methods in order to increase motivation in students. Instructors can also incorporate into their classes practical strategies for fostering the development of intrinsic motivation and perceived competence.

Overview

Physical education programs in American schools declined in the 2010s, despite a growing focus and interest of Americans on physical activity and the positive health benefits that are associated with an active lifestyle. In 1991, 42 percent of United States high school students attended daily physical education classes; in 2013, only 29 percent of students did. In 2022, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) revealed, as reported by the Washington Post, that only 2 percent of US high schools provided daily physical education at all. Without the requirement of having to take a physical education class, students are missing out on positive experiences associated with physical activity that will contribute to the student being motivated to maintain a physically active lifestyle over a lifetime.

The development of this motivation begins early in a child's physical education experience. Physical education teachers are vital to creating and providing the quality, positive and motivating environment students need to have positive physical activity experiences that contribute to achievement in physical education and a lifetime of physical activity.

Motivation is a key component necessary for a student to be an active and engaged participant in physical education classes and invested in committing to a physically active lifestyle. Within the physical education context, motivation can be defined as why an individual participates in and persists at engaging in a particular activity or set of behaviors. Motivation underlies achievement in physical education; students cannot achieve the goals of physical education programs unless they are motivated and engaged in the physical education curriculum. Achievement in physical education has been defined by the National Physical Education Standards as set forth by the Society of Health and Physical Educators, or SHAPE America. These standards, which were updated in 2024, provide a set of guidelines for what physical education should focus on in order to achieve a learning environment in which students are developing skills to keep them physically active over a lifetime. These standards state that a physically literate person:

• Standard 1: Develops a variety of motor skills.

• Standard 2: Applies knowledge related to movement and fitness concepts.

• Standard 3: Develops social skills through movement.

• Standard 4: Develops personal skills, identifies personal benefits of movement, and chooses to engage in physical activity.

These standards of achievement and learning in physical education cannot be attained without physical education teachers purposefully emphasizing and incorporating motivational techniques and experiences that will foster motivation to engage in the physical education curriculum. Several theories of motivation in the achievement setting will be discussed, including self-determination theory and achievement goal theory. A review of these theories will be followed by strategies for physical education teachers to implement to enhance motivation and achievement in their students.

Applications

Self-Determination Theory

Self-determination theory proposes that an individual's motivational state falls along a continuum of motivation. This continuum proceeds as follows:

• Amotivation

• Self-determined extrinsic motivation

• Other-determined extrinsic motivation

• Intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation is the most desirable on the continuum, as it reflects the motivation of an individual to participate in an activity for the sake of participating. Research has indicated that individuals who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to adhere to a physically active lifestyle. Also along the continuum of motivation are self-determined extrinsic motivation and other-determined extrinsic motivation. Other-determined extrinsic motivation is characterized by individuals who are motivated by external factors such as obligation to others, guilt, fear, and/or rewards, which have been shown to undermine motivation to engage in activities over an extended period of time. At the low end of the continuum is amotivation, which is defined as the lack of organized motivation to engage in an activity.

Self-determination theory suggests that if an individual does not believe that engaging in a particular activity will lead to the desired outcome, he or she will not partake. This may be due to poor self-image or lack of interest, time, or competence. Individuals can move along the continuum of motivation that is proposed in self-determination theory, indicating that motivation toward different activities can change.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Cognitive evaluation theory is a sub-theory of self-determination theory that hypothesizes that intrinsic motivation to engage in an activity is experienced when the individual perceives a sense of control over the activity, feels a sense of relatedness to the activity, and has positive feelings about one self while participating in the activity. Intrinsically motivated individuals engage in behaviors or activities for the sake of participating in the activity itself. Cognitive evaluation theory sets forth four propositions to explain and predict an individual's level of intrinsic motivation:

• Proposition I proposes that when an individual has a perceived sense of control over participating in an activity (autonomy) and sense of control over the achievement of personal goals (self-determined) he or she will be more intrinsically motivated.

• Proposition II asserts that when an individual experiences feelings of competence and has opportunities to engage in optimally challenging tasks, this will enhance intrinsic motivation.

• Proposition III asserts that factors that are intrinsic or extrinsic (e.g., constructive feedback v. outcome contingent feedback or rewards) to a situation can impact intrinsic motivation along a continuum.

• Proposition IV suggests that individuals who are focused on self-improvement and learning will be more intrinsically motivated.

Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement goal theory has been used as a framework for exploring motivation in the regular classroom since the 1980s and since the 1990s in the physical education domain. This theory of motivation addresses the relationship between effort and ability in an achievement setting. Achievement goal theory purports that the relationship between effort and ability is specific to each individual and determines if the student adopts a task/mastery-orientation or ego/performance-orientation.

A physical education student who is task/mastery-oriented judges his or her ability through self-referenced evaluation and feels successful when he or she puts forth more effort toward an activity or performance. This type of student will choose challenging tasks and display greater persistence than those students who are ego/performance-oriented. A physical education student who is ego-oriented focuses on ability and views success as displaying superior ability (as compared to others) in completing a task or performing a skill. Ego-oriented individuals are more likely to avoid challenging tasks and choose not to persist for as long as those students who are task-oriented. These variations or differing goal orientations are attributed to individual differences and situational factors.

The Motivational Climate

Achievement goal theory provides a lens for looking at student motivation in physical education; however, the application of this theory to the classroom setting is addressed through the concept and application of what is labeled the motivational climate. The development and introduction of the concept of motivational climate was not introduced until the late 1980s and early 1990s through the research and theory development conducted by Ames, Nicholls, Dweck and Leggett. The motivational climate can be defined as the social climate that is created by important social factors (e.g., the teacher) as it relates to perspectives on achievement. Researchers have suggested that a student's dispositional goal orientation or goal involvement (i.e., task/mastery or ego/performance) in combination with the social climate will determine the meanings that students attach to achievement and affect their behavioral patterns in the educational setting.

A task/mastery orientation is fostered in physical education students through the development of a classroom motivational climate that focuses on self-improvement and acquiring skill, whereas a climate that focuses on comparing oneself to others' performances and ability fosters an ego/performance-involvement or orientation in its students. Through the development of a task-oriented motivational climate, physical education teachers can effectively work toward developing students who are able to meet the national standards that are related to the motivation to engage in physical activity and to achieve, maintain, and value physical fitness.

Further Insights

Intrinsic Motivation

Physical education teachers have the opportunity to foster the development of intrinsic motivation in their students. Intrinsic motivation is characterized by participation for the purpose of experiencing enjoyment and satisfaction, which can be fostered in physical education classes and linked to the motivation to maintain a physically active lifestyle. Physical educators can structure their class to increase intrinsic motivation by increasing the sense of autonomy the students perceive, by providing opportunities for them to make choices in physical education classes. By providing students a perceived choice or sense of control over what activities they may choose to participate in or allowing them to modify the activity based on skill level and engage in optimally challenging activities, the teacher fosters motivation to engage in the chosen activity. Physical education teachers who provide these types of choices are more likely to be providing developmentally appropriate activity choices for their students.

Other strategies for fostering intrinsic motivation include minimizing controlling external factors, providing optimally challenging experiences and offering variety when designing practice experiences for the students.The use of extrinsic rewards (e.g., grades) can undermine students' intrinsic motivation because these rewards compel students to focus on their performance outcomes instead of the learning process. Rather than use extrinsic rewards, physical education teachers should focus on providing the student feedback or information about the positive things that the student did, why they were good and how to continue improving.

When the focus is not on the outcome or performance of the practice session, the students will be more likely to choose optimally challenging tasks. Physical education teachers can structure the learning environment with individualized instruction that will create optimally challenging situations for students, which will make the students less likely to become frustrated and anxious due to activities that are too challenging or bored due to activities that are too easy. The proper balance is a challenge as classes are typically comprised of students with a variety of cognitive, affective, and physical developmental levels. Physical education teachers may incorporate small-sided games (e.g., 3 v. 3 soccer) to decrease the chances that one or two skilled players will dominate play and remove other less skilled players from the game. Fostering intrinsic motivation through the implementation of these strategies can positively influence the students' commitment to a physically active lifestyle outside the classroom.

Perceived Competence

Physical education teachers can also create an environment that fosters perceived competence in the students. Students who have the opportunity to learn new skills and engage in physical activities learn, practice, and develop a sense of confidence in their ability to perform physical skills and activities. Students who perceive that they are competent in these types of skills and activities are more willing to try different activities and skills and to participate in physical activities that they feel competent in doing. If students are not afforded the opportunities to learn skills through sufficient amounts of practice and, as a result, have a low level of perceived competence, they will be less likely to choose to participate in a physically active lifestyle later in life. Physical education instructors can help foster perceived competence in students by providing them with sufficient quality practice time that is ample but short enough for the students to maintain focus and excitement for the task at hand. Physical education teachers can maintain this type of learning environment by monitoring the progress of the class and addressing students who display frustration and non-task related behavior.

Another way for teachers to foster their students' perceived sense of control is through instruction and feedback. Physical education teachers should emphasize the technique of performing the skill rather than focusing on the outcome or product. A student's willingness to participate in learning and practicing a skill may be affected by what he/she believes is success (e.g., successfully making a lay-up). If the student perceives the definition of success as too challenging based on his or her perceived competence, the student will be less willing to make attempts at performing the skill. Teachers should provide feedback to the student that focuses on the skill and the technical aspects of performing the skill rather than the end result.

A child's perception of competence is also influenced by his or her perceived ability as compared to other students. It is important to note that this social comparison process is not evident until approximately 8–10 years of age. Physical education teachers can avoid placing students in practice situations that force the students to practice in front of their peers. Instead, teachers can have students practice spread out and scattered around the space or ask the student if they are willing and comfortable to demonstrate a particular skill before putting them in a potentially embarrassing situation. If teachers would like to group the students for practice, he or she should do so in a quick manner so as not to suggest that the grouping is being done with an agenda. Also, teachers should utilize modified lead up games to activities to provide opportunities for success and enhanced learning, thus allowing the students to experience a sense of competence and learning.

The TARGET Method for Motivational Climate

Motivational climate may be utilized in the classroom as a framework in which to create a learning environment focused on either enhancing or promoting task/mastery-oriented or a mastery/performance-oriented climate. Teachers can manipulate the classroom climate in order to influence students' effort, behavior, and emotions in the physical education setting. Ames (1992) asserted that the classroom environment can be fostered so that there is an emphasis on self-improvement and skill learning.

The classroom climate can be manipulated to emphasize a task/mastery climate through the implementation of the TARGET structure. There are six components or factors in the classroom setting that a teacher has control over and may manipulate in order to influence students' goal involvement and behavioral patterns in the classroom. These TARGET factors are:

• The Task students are asked to perform,

• The amount of Authority students are allowed,

• The way in which Rewards are given to students,

• How students are Grouped,

• How students are Evaluated, and

• The amount of Time students are given to complete or learn a task.

Teachers may manipulate these areas of their classroom structure and influence the students' perception of either a task-involving or ego-involving physical education classroom climate. For example, a task-involving climate would provide students the opportunity to:

• Complete assignments following their own short-term goals.

• Introduce classroom tasks and focus instructions on learning and individual skill improvement.

• Design tasks to include varied, optimally challenging, and continuous activity for students.

• Choose their own equipment and task to complete while monitoring and evaluating their own performance.

• Keep rewards and recognition and evaluation private and between the teacher and student as well as self-referenced.

• Receive feedback in private.

Such a climate would also have the following advantages:

• Groups remain flexible and heterogeneous.

• Feedback should focus on information that will help the student perform the skills successfully.

• Time allowed and spent on task is flexible based on students' own goals and improvement.

Physical education classes are typically comprised of students with a wide range of ability and motor and physical skill development. Teachers who focus their curricular goals develop students who are task-oriented and focused on learning and self-improvement.

Viewpoints

Disadvantages of the TARGET Method

Teachers have reported concerns about experiencing a sense of losing control over their classroom and students' behavior when employing the TARGET method due to the perceived loss of control and environment with low restrictions. Other concerns that teachers have about employing a mastery/task-oriented motivational climate include assessment of students, student behavior, safety with increased freedom, and the ability to learn and incorporate potentially new task-involving teaching methods while experiencing pressure and meeting the expectations of achieving the national, state or local standards in the physical education setting.

Physical education teachers have a unique opportunity to influence youth and adolescents' motivation to engage in physical activity. This motivation may begin in the physical education classroom as students are encouraged to engage in a variety of physically active endeavors in an effort to achieve the National Physical Education Standards and any other curricular goals. Teachers are faced with the challenge of motivating and engaging all students who may be at a wide range of developmental levels and possess different types of motivation to engage in physical challenges. Teachers may apply motivational theory to their teaching strategy by empowering students and giving them a sense of autonomy, feelings of competence, and opportunities for success.

Terms & Concepts

Achievement Goal Theory: Theory of motivation that considers the individual's conception of ability as well as personal and situational factors that influence the meaning that is attached to successful or unsuccessful experiences.

Amotivation: The absence of motivation.

Ego/Performance-Orientation/Oriented/Involved: Goal orientation that is centered on performance, other-reference assessment of ability, and competitive-based rewards.

Intrinsic Motivation: Motivation to engage in an activity for the enjoyment and satisfaction one receives from the experience.

Motivation: Choice, effort and persistence to engage in a particular activity or task.

Motivational Climate: The psychological climate in a learning environment that addresses what goal-reward structure (i.e., mastery goals-individual rewards or performance goals-competitive rewards) is emphasized.

Optimally Challenging Task: Situations where the challenge of an activity is balanced with an individual's ability.

Perceived Competence: Sense of mastery and the perception of being effective in the things we do.

Relatedness: Sense of satisfaction and involvement with the social world.

Self-Determination Theory: Theory of motivation that suggests that motivation falls along a continuum of intrinsic motivation to amotivation.

Task/Mastery-Orientation/Oriented/Involved: Goal orientation that is centered on learning, self-referenced assessment of ability, and individual-based rewards.

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